
Copyrights 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 




V 



y 



Sheet Metal Workers' 
Manual 

A Complete, Practical Instruction Book on 

the Sheet Metal Industry, Machinery and 

Tools, and Related Subjects, Including 

k the Oxy- Acetylene Welding and 

Cutting Process 

By 

L. BROEMEL 

With a Special Course in Elementary and Advanced 

Sheet Metal Work and Pattern Drafting for 

Technical and Trade School Instructors and 

Students; Also for Reference and Study 

by Sheet Metal Workers and 

Apprentices 

By 

J. S. DAUGHERTY 

Instructor in Sheet Metal Work, School of Applied 

Industries, Carnegie Institute of 

Technology, Pittsburgh 



FULLY ILLUSTRATED 



CHICAGO 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 

Publishers 



Copyright 1918 

BY 

Frederick J. Drake & Co. 



/ 
M 10 1918 

©CLA499641 



PREFACE 

This book has been written in response to a widespread 
demand for a comprehensive work on the machinery, 
tools, and methods employed in sheet metal working. 
This demand comes from the trade, as well as from 
manual-training and technical schools. 

Realizing the need for a correlated course in practical 
sheet metal and pattern drafting in text form, Professor 
J. S. Daugherty, Instructor in Sheet Metal Work in the 
School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute of Tech- 
nology, Pittsburgh, Pa., has rendered valuable assistance 
by the preparation of such a course, with pen drawings 
and illustrations of actual problems, along the lines of 
the best shop methods, derived from years of experience 
in teaching the subject and as a practical sheet metal 
worker. The course is outlined and the problems are pre- 
sented in such sequence that the processes and machine 
operations are reviewed with each new problem. 

It is not expected that all the problems given by Pro- 
fessor Daugherty will be strictly copied, but rather that 
they will make clear the methods and processes that may 
be applied in the construction of similar problems in 
actual practice. The proper sequence, so necessary for 
successful instruction in sheet metal pattern drafting, is 
an important feature of this course. Many of the prob- 
lems are only partly solved, which prevents the student 
from copying from the text and compels him to develop 
his power to think as well as to draw. It is desired that 
this course may be regarded as presenting the essentials 
of sheet metal work, rather than as an attempt to produce 
a series of models. 

5 



6 PREFACE 

After a perusal of the correlated course in sheet metal 
working and pattern drafting, attention may well be 
directed to the chapters in this book on Oxy- Acetylene 
Welding and Cutting, Electric Welding, Hand Forging 
and Welding, and other information that does not 
directly deal with sheet metal work and pattern drafting, 
tut includes subjects intimately connected with sheet 
metal working practice. These subjects are having exten- 
sive introduction in the modern sheet metal shop. Schools 
teaching sheet metal working as an industrial art should 
therefore in the preparation of their courses, arrange for 
lectures that will convey to the mind of the student that 
there are other methods for joining together sheet metals 
besides riveting and soldering. Any one school term 
does not permit extensive practice of these processes, 
but the student should know something about them, 
to qualify him for a place abreast of his fellow-work- 
men on establishing himself in the industrial shop. If 
the time for lectures on these subjects is not afforded, 
it can be suggested that the student read up on the 
same. 

The principal author of this book has been for many 
years active with The Peck, Stow & Wilcox Co., of South- 
ington, Conn., foremost manufacturers of sheet metal 
working machinery. He presents a collection of data on 
the construction and application of modern sheet metal 
working machines and tools, describing their purposes 
and uses with pen drawings and other illustrations in as 
practical and non-technical a manner as possible, making 
the instruction given easy to follow. During eighteen 
years of service with the manufacturers named, he has 
gained a broad experience in sheet metal working machin- 
ery development, and offers here a source of information 
of great value to all those interested in sheet metal work, 
and the labor and time saving equipment so necessary for 
bringing to a finished stage of completion the many 



PREFACE T 

problems that daily confront the sheet metal worker im 
the shop. 

The author, having spent a lifetime with the tinsmith 
and sheet metal worker, during that time has visited 
many shops the country over. It is surprising to observe 
how limited is the knowledge of a large percentage of 
apprentice and advanced sheet metal workers regarding 
the essentials of machine and tool construction and appli- 
cation. Therefore, the subject of sheet metal working 
machinery and tool construction, their uses and applica- 
tion, is treated in these pages in an extensive way. It is 
suggested that the school instructor make the student 
fully acquainted with all equipment used, pointing out 
the adjusting features in such machines, and fully 
explaining their operation. 

It is also recommended that the student educate him- 
self on machines and tools that, are not used in the school 
classroom, so that he will not feel awkward or embar- 
rassed when entering the commercial field in pursuit of 
his trade, to find in the shop where he is employed equip- 

Iment with which he is not familiar, and different from 
similar machines and tools on whicn he received his school 
training. 

An examination of the Table of Contents will show that 
the range of other subjects covered is such as will make a 
valuable and well-rounded course ^instruction. 

The author is greatly indebted to The Prest-O-Lite 
Company, Indianapolis, Ind., for the instructive course 
given on oxy-acetylene welding and cutting ; and he feels 
grateful indeed to the Buffalo Forge Company, Buffalo, 
N. Y., for exercises given on hand forging and welding, 
which were prepared with the assistance of Professor L. 
B. Nollau, of Kentucky State University; Professor 
James Littlefield, of the Cleveland Technical High School, 
and Mr. Robert M. Smith, Supervisor of Technical Work 
in the High Schools of Chicago. 




$ PREFACE 

Acknowledgments are also due, and are hereby ten- 
dered, to The Metal Club, Philadelphia ; The Art Metal 
Construction Company, Jamestown, N. Y. ; The Peck, 
Stow & Wilcox Company, Southington, Conn.; Follans- 
bee Brothers Company, Pittsburgh, Pa. ; and the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C, for 
various courtesies in connection with the preparation of 
this volume. 

The manufacturers mentioned above are all well known 
in technical school and industrial fields, and a cordial 
invitation is extended to our readers to communicate 
with them or visit their large manufacturing plants, in 
pursuit of further knowledge on any of the subjects cov- 
ered in this book, or equipment relating thereto. 

It is hoped that this work, the first of its kind ever 
attempted in one complete volume, will prove helpful to 
industrial teachers, students, apprentices, sheet metal 
workers, and all others interested in sheet metal work. 
Its great advantage is that all information of interest to 
the industrial sheet metal worker is contained in a single 
comprehensive volume ; and as the ambition of the student 
develops he will find all these things of great importance 
for a practical worker to have at his command. 

L. B. 



CONTENTS 
i 

Page 
The Sheet Metal Industry 11 

II 

Sheet Metal Working Machinery 22 

III 

Sheet Metal Working Tools 127 

IV 

Sheet Metal Working School Shop Equipment 145 



Course in Elementary and Advanced Sheet Metal 
Work and Pattern Drafting 151 

VI 

Outline Course in Sheet Metal Work — Emergency 
War Training 302 

VII 

Oxy- Acetylene Welding and Cutting 310 

VIII 

Electric Welding 351 

'9 



10 CONTENTS 

IX 

Page 
Hand Forging and Welding 376 

Course in Forge Practice 396 



X 

Outline Course in Hand Forging and Welding — 
Emergency War Training 424 



XI 

Brazing 430 

XII 

Pipe Bending 437 

XIII 

Properties of Metals and Their Alloys 443 

XIV 

Practical Geometry and Mensuration 463 

XV 

Useful Tables 497 

Index 541 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



SHEET METAL INDUSTRY 

Extensive Use of Sheet Iron and Steel. — The greater 
part of the iron tonnage of the many mills all over the 
world is rolled into sheets and sold to manufacturers 
using sheet metal. Sheet metal has qualities that make it 
the best material for numerous products used in the 
home, office, and factory, on the farm, in railroad rolling 
stock, automobiles, pleasure boats, merchant vessels, etc. 
Stringent fire laws are rapidly replacing wood with sheet 
steel in many structures. It is more economical than 
wood ; it is indestructible, fireproof, light in weight, and 
very durable, and the finished product presents a pleasing 
appearance. 

Sheet Metal Products. — The list of manufacturers 
using sheet steel and iron in their products is long and 
ever increasing. A few of their products are named 
below : 



Acetylene gas machines 

Advertising signs 

Agate and enamel ware 

Ash cans 

Automobiles 

Bakers' and confectioners' 

utensils 
Bar fixtures 
Bedsteads 
Blower systems 
Blower and power fans 
Building lath 
Caskets 



Clothes driers 

Commercial automobile trucks 

Cornice and skylights 

Culverts 

Dairy and creamery machinery 

Electric advertising signs 

Elevators 

Factory equipment — Benches, 

hand trucks, lockers, stools 
Pireless cookers 
Fire extinguishers 
Fireproof doors 
Feed troughs 
11 



12 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Freight cars Refrigerating and ice 

Gaskets machinery 

Heater pipe Rowboats 

Hospital furniture Silos 

Incubators and brooders Soda fountains and apparatus 

Kodaks Steamships 

Lamps Steel furniture and cabinets 

Laundry machinery Store bins 

Locomotives Store fronts 

Metal barrels Stoves, ranges and furnaces 

Metal stampings Tinware 

Milk cans Toys 

Motor boats Ventilating systems 

Oil tanks Ventilators 

Pipe elbows "Washing machines 

Portable garages Wash tubs 

Portable hen houses "Water coolers 

Railroad passenger cars Watering troughs 

[Refrigerators Window sashes 

The Tin Roof. — A roof of tin protects our nation's most 
treasured buildings and safeguards its priceless treasures 
and relics. America's foremost residence, the White 
House, is roofed with tin, also the adjoining executive 
offices. Needless to say, critical discrimination — taking 
into account effect and appearance, as well as protection 
from the elements, durability, and real economy — led to 
the adoption of this type of roofing for the President's 
home. 

Tin is not combustible. A tin roof is an unbroken 
sheet of metal, with no cracks or openings of any kind to 
admit fire. 

In a fire at Scranton, Pa., flames swept across the roofs 
of three adjoining buildings on Lackawanna Avenue. 
The center building had a tin roof. Those on either side 
were roofed with slag. Both of these slag roofs caught 
fire and burned through, communicating the fire to the 
interior of the building. But the building in between 
them — covered with tin — was uninjured. 

Such instances may be multiplied hundreds of times 
and are a matter of common knowledge. The fire-resist- 



SHEET METAL INDUSTRY 13 

ing properties of tin roofs are amply attested by fire 
departments, and by the insurance underwriters in the 
more favorable rates granted on buildings covered with 
tin. 

Sheet Metal Furniture, — Sheet metal is now exten- 
sively used for office furniture. Of great importance in 
every business are the records, letters, contracts, and 
other papers which insurance cannot replace. Sheet 
metal furniture and files afford protection from fire. 

A fire test conducted by a congressional committee at 
Washington, D. C, proved conclusively that fire severe 
enough to slightly char the edges of papers in a metal 
vertical file unit will totally destroy a similar cabinet of 
wood. 

At the time of the great Baltimore fire the Baltimore 
Trust Company had four metal steel cabinets in use in 
their banking- room, and the canceled checks, books, 
vouchers, coupons, etc., contained in the steel cases were 
found intact and perfectly preserved. 

Metal desks represent the best architectural taste in 
their quiet dignity and correct proportion. They are 
very substantial, but not cumbersome; designed on 
straight simple lines, faultless in detail. They can be 
finished to match any wood trim and are a distinct addi- 
tion to the finest interiors. 

Building Trim of Metal. — The New York Municipal 
Building is probably the most complete and handsome in 
the world. It is fireproof throughout, with all trim of 
sheet metal, and in this ' ' age of steel ' ' it is worthy of note 
that there is steel office equipment on twenty-two floors, 
in twenty-five departments of the municipal service. 

Architects more and more specify sheet metal in place 
of wood trim for buildings. Contractors have come rapidly 
to see the advantage of sheet steel over wood, as it adds 
an extra quality to their work at no increase in labor cost. 
It gives them the prestige that comes with having the 



14 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

good condition of a building observed and remarked 
upon after years of use. 

Sheet metal is an essential in constructing buildings of 
every description. The appearance test is a time test— a 
question of . durability . 

It is interesting to observe that metal lath, sash, and 
trim were used exclusively in the Woolworth Building in 
New York City. 

Steel Boats and Cars. — Steel has replaced wood in the 
motor boat, passenger coach, electric car, and subw r ay 
coach. It is in general use in the manufacture of auto- 
mobiles and goes into the interior equipment of battle- 
ships and steamships. During the great World War tons 
of sheet steel have been purchased by the United States 
Government and its manufacturers for use in marine 
construction. 

A Government contract was recently awarded for 
38,800 tent stoves. This was but the beginning of buying 
for this purpose, and it seemed probable that eventually 
the Government orders would exceed 300,000 stoves. For 
the contract named, about 550 tons of sheets were 
required. 

ADVANTAGES OF ROOFING TIN 

Something like a hundred years ago America began the 
use of roofing tin — imported from Europe. Domestic tin 
plate first was made in 1830, in Philadelphia. 

Durability. — So far, nobody has undertaken to fix a 
limit on the durability of the tin roof. The National 
Association of Master Sheet Metal Workers is authority 
for the statement that where good tin is used, and good 
workmanship, the roof can be expected to last as long as 
the building stands, with no further attention except 
painting. 

Philadelphia's oldest tin roof dates back to 1835, 
according to information in the files of the Philadelphia 



SHEET METAL INDUSTRY 15 

Sheet Metal Workers' Association. It is on the Horace 
Binney residence, 243 South 4th Street, now owned by 
the Pennsylvania Railroad and used for office purposes. 
The present roof is believed to be the same as was laid, 
over shingles, by the late Jos. Trueman, Quaker tinsmith, 
in 1835 or thereabouts. The records of the Association 
show many instances of tin roofs laid thirty, forty and 
fifty years ago, which remain in good condition today. 

At Bethlehem, Pa., the Moravian Seminary was roofed 
with tin, in 1836. The roof is still in good condition, at 
this writing — over eighty years afterwards. 

In New York state, at Cherry Valley, stood Judge 
Morse's office building, until 1908, when this building 
was taken down. The tin roof was found to be in good 
condition after ninety-five years' service. 

Many notable roof s furnish testimony on the durability 
of tin as a roofing material. Everywhere roofs of tin, in 
service for a half -century, are to be found in excellent 
condition and apparently good for an indefinite period. 

Lightness. — Besides affording long-time protection 
from the elements, roofing tin, being light in weight, im- 
poses no unusual strain on supporting walls. In this 
way, the tin roof adds to the durability of the building 
itself. In Jersey City a large church was condemned as 
unsafe, because of the heavy weight of its slate roof. The 
slate was removed, roofing tin put on, and the structure 
saved* from demolition. 

Repairs Easily Made. — Eoofing repairs are easily and 
economically made, when the roof is tin. They can be 
made in any kind of weather — regardless of rain, snow 
or temperature. And a repair in a tin roof is permanent. 
With other forms of roofing, almost without exception, 
repairs require removal and replacement of large areas — 
usually involving considerable expense and generally 
leaving the roof in an imperfect condition, which becomes 
a source of future trouble. With the use of roofing tin, 



16 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

properly laid, future trouble and expense are practically 
eliminated at the very beginning. 

Base Plates for Roofing Tin. — For a roofing tin to wear 
well, the base on which it is made must be protected by a 
properly applied coating of tin and lead. The base plate 
must be free from chemical elements which cause cor- 
rosion or pinholing, and must be soft, pliable, and ductile. 
AH these necessary qualities are determined or governed 
by the process by which the base plate is made from the 
raw materials, and its subsequent treatment. 

Practically all the high-grade roofing tin plates manu- 
factured in this country today, are based on the mild, soft 
steel produced by the open-hearth process. This steel, 
being hammered into billets and cut into convenient sizes 
for handling, is rolled down into "tin bars," 8 inches 
wide by 20 to 30 feet long. The bars in turn are cut into 
certain sizes to correspond to the sizes of base plates 
desired. These pieces then go through the following 
operations to reach the stage of finished plate : 

First, they are hot rolled into plates of the size and 
gauge desired. Then they go through the successive 
processes of pickling, washing, first annealing, cold roll- 
ing, second annealing, and second pickling. They are 
once more thoroughly washed, and are then ready for 
tinning. 

VARIOUS KINDS OF SHEET METAL 

Special reference has been made to roofing tin, because 
of its importance to the sheet metal worker in the average 
shop. Bright charcoal tin for tinware manufacturing 
and other purposes, galvanized sheets, and sheets having 
a coppered, nickeled, or polished finish, all go through 
the same process of manufacture as the roofing tin plate. 
They all have their origin in the base plate material. 

Charcoal tin has a dead black finish before it is dipped 
in pure tin, while the roofing tin plate is dipped in a mix- 



SHEET METAL INDUSTRY 17 

ture of tin and lead ; and the galvanized sheet, so exten- 
sively used in the sheet metal shop, is dipped in spelter. 
Other finishes are treated by special methods and dipped 
in their own solutions. But if we could take any of these 
plates or sheets and scrape their surfaces down to the 
base plate, we would find that all of them, no matter how 
finished, originate from the black sheet. 

Steel sheets for special uses in press work, etc., are 
produced through special annealing. 

Among the "Useful Tables' ' at the end of this volume, 
complete information will be found on weights and stand- 
ard gauges of tin plate and galvanized sheets, as well as 
other data of interest to the student. 

The sheet metal working industry today also employs 
very extensively aluminum, brass, copper, and zinc 
sheets, all of which are easy working materials, except 
what is termed "hard" and "half hard" brass. When 
attempting to apply sheet metal working machinery to 
operations in brass, where the brass is tiard or half hard, 
it is always advisable to confer with the machinery manu- 
facturer, to secure an expert decision as to whether the 
machine is well adapted for the working of brass in its 
special degree of hardness. 

The student, after leaving the school and establishing 
himself in a sheet metal shop, is often called upon to make 
a recommendation of the best equipment and material the 
market affords for operations in sheet metal work. It is 
suggested, therefore, that the student should familiarize 
himself with the different grades and kinds of materials, 
so as to be able to specify the gauge and special grade of 
material to which particular machines or tools should be 
applied. 

In our chapter on sheet metal working machinery, the 
capacities of all machines given apply to iron or soft 
steel; and as sheet steel is manufactured in different 
degrees of hardness, this has a great effect on all machin- 



18 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

ery made for sheet metal working operations. Where 
material is used outside of the average soft-grade stock, 
the machinery manufacturer should receive this informa- 
tion, on which to base his recommendations. 

IMPORTANCE OP SHEET METAL WORK 

Sheet metal work is an increasingly important cog in 
the wheels of industry. Before the Great War it had 
become an essential factor in practically every branch of 
the metal trades. During the war this industry has sud- 
denly sprung into greater prominence, but has been seri- 
ously handicapped by the lack of skilled mechanics. 
After the war the work of restoration will undoubtedly 
bring with it a tremendous need for men skilled in all 
sheet metal trades. 

Automobile, aeroplane, and truck makers, as well as 
metal furniture, metal ceiling, and metal roofing manu- 
facturers, are now looking to the technical schools for 
assistance. Sheet metal working is now, indeed, a most 
fertile vocation. 

That this opportunity is recognized by school officials 
and instructors is evidenced by the number of technical 
and high schools now adding sheet metal courses. 

A Growing Industry. — Sheet metal work is a large and 
growing industry. It is intimately connected with the 
building trades and an increasing proportion of the costs 
of building are spent for cornice work, roofing, skylights, 
ornamental ceilings, ventilating, heating, etc. The rapid 
growth of the automobile industry requires the labor of 
thousands of men on bodies and radiators, and the inven- 
tion of sheet metal boats and a large line of metal furni- 
ture are opening up new fields every day. Today more 
than ever, the sheet metal working trades offer unusual 
opportunities to young men who possess the necessary 
training. The work is not confining, not unhealthful, and 
not dangerous, and the wages paid to the competent man 



SHEET METAL INDUSTRY 19 

in the sheet metal trades compare favorably with the 
wages paid in any similar skilled occupation. 

This brief outline of the sheet metal industry shows 
a wide field of opportunity for the student and appren- 
tice, as well as the tinsmith who complains that his trade 
is of less importance, owing to the introduction of modern 
methods, which now produce rapidly and in great quan- 
tities the tinware he used to turn out with great skill 
by hand. 

It may not be amiss to mention here to the ambitious 
student who has selected sheet metal working as a voca- 
tion best suited to his qualifications, that early ambitions 
are very beautiful and alluring, but if they are not fol- 
lowed up and realized in actions — if our efforts to make 
our dreams come true are postponed — they will begin to 
fade, and our purpose will not prove quite so forceful, 
our desire to achieve will not be quite so insistent — and 
before we know it our ambition is dead. 

Multitudes of young people who are eager to get an 
education to build up an honorable career go to the trade 
school and work hard, but after graduation slacken their 
efforts. They think that they are going to retain all they 
have acquired, and that their education is complete, not 
realizing that in reality it is only the beginning. The 
young man whose mind is constantly reaching up for 
something higher and better, always trying to inform 
himself, who is ever eager to absorb knowledge from 
every possible source, is made of winning material. 

If you are studying to be a machinist, engineer, or 
sheet metal working contractor, make yourself a first- 
class one — king in your line, whatever it is. There is 
a great demand for sheet metal workers who are experts 
in this art. Some percentage of this demand is supplied 
by men who profess mastership of their trade, but are 
slow to think, having hands that do not move in unison 
with their minds. Manufacturers are compelled to send 



20 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

these men, at a late date of life, to our evening trade 
schools to improve their skill and enable them better to 
cope with ordinary shop problems. 

A noted school instructor conducting evening classes 
in sheet metal work has stated that many men enter his 
class claiming years of experience in the trade, and do not 
know of the existence of many common, ordinary tools 
and machines used in daily shop practice, an essential 
form of knowledge for successful sheet metal working 
practice. As a consequence, the school instructor is forced 
to give a great deal of valuable time to a subject that 
might be self-taught, with a loss of many valuable hours 
during the school term, which could be better applied to 
the actual work of developing the many problems in these 
pages. 

With this in mind, no efforts have been spared in the 
preparation of the information given in these pages per- 
taining to shop equipment. The author has attempted 
to qualify his reader to handle such equipment with good 
judgment as he goes from the school into the commercial 
world and moves from one shop to another. The trade 
school which he attended may have had one type of ma- 
chine and when the student enters the shop as an appren- 
tice he may find a different machine, the operation and 
adjustment of which he is not familiar with. It is urged 
upon the student to carefully peruse the valuable informa- 
tion given in these pages pertaining to machinery and 
tools and other subjects which are intimately connected 
with sheet metal working. No instructor during any one 
school term has the time to review these matters in detail, 
but the presentation of this complete work permits of 
acquainting our readers with these mechanical appli- 
ances, so that they may teach themselves. 

Subscribe to any one or more of the good trade journals 
on sheet metal working. Keep in touch with the devel- 
opment of the industry in which you are striving to gain 



SHEET METAL INDUSTRY 21 

or to hold your place as a master. Follow the progress 
of the manufacturer who makes your favorite tools or 
machines. Maintain a catalog library of your own. Read 
mechanical books intimately connected with your trade. 
Welcome the ideas of others, and try to improve upon 
them. Experiment with the many formulas given in 
these chapters. These things will all help to make you an 
expert sheet metal worker. 

Sheet metal working is not the vocation of a "jack of 
all trades/' but an art that if once acquired and prac- 
ticed with an ambition that does not die on the threshold 
when leaving the school, will develop trained workers 
fully qualified to solve the sheet metal problems that 
arise in every shop. 



II 

SHEET METAL WOEKING MACHINEEY 
SQUARING SHEARS 

Many kinds of shears are manufactured for cutting 
sheet metals in various shapes. But although confined in 
their work to squaring and trimming, no other shears 
prove so valuable and have such an important function 
in mills and in the shops of the small and large sheet 
metal worker and manufacturer as the squaring shears. 
When tin plate, sheet iron, brass, copper, or aluminum 
is ordered from the mill in sheets of large size, they must 
be sheared, or cut and trimmed, to a desired size for the 
article manufactured. We cannot start the progress of 
the material that is to be utilized on its way through the 
shop before it is properly cut to accurate size for the 
forming and shaping operations to follow. 

The squaring shears, whether foot operated or driven 
by power with a belt or through a direct-drive motor, 
are alike in their operating principles and practicability, 
except that the crosshead or gate to which the upper 
cutting blade is fastened on the foot power squaring 
shears is drawn down through pressure brought to bear 
on a foot treadle, while the power squaring shears are 
driven with a belt from a line shaft and sometimes with 
a motor fitted in direct connection with the driving gears. 
On power squaring shears the stroke of the crosshead or 
gate is controlled by means of an automatic positive 
clutch. The clutch in the power squaring shears is 
tripped with a slight depression of a foot treadle, and 
unless the treadle is kept depressed the motion of the 
crosshead or gate will stop automatically at its highest 

22 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



23 



point after making one cut, without any stoppage of the 
flywheel. 

Foot Power Squaring Shears. — When using the foot 
power squaring shears it is the usual practice to insert 
the material between the cutting blades from the front 
of the machine, although it is customary in some shops 
to feed from the rear of the machine. The latter method 
of cutting with the squaring shears is more usually prac- 
ticed when short pieces are to be cut from sheets of great 



Upper Cutting 
Blade 

Lower Blade 
Bed Gauge 
Arm 



Gauqe Guide Rod5 



Gauge 
Clamping lino! 




foot Treadle 



Rear Gauge Arm 

Adjustable 
Gauge 
holder 

SideSpring 

Side Guide 

Leg and 
Housing 

urnbuchle 
Long Con- 
necting Rod 

Bed 
Adjusting Screws 



Figure 1. — Foot Power Squaring Shears. 

length, for the purpose of allowing more freedom in 
operating the foot treadle; but when the sheet can be 
handled conveniently, the best results are secured when 
it is inserted in the usual way, from the front of the 
machine. When entering the sheet from the rear of the 
machine, the front bed gauges are used, and where the 
piece to be cut is larger than the bed in the machine, 
the bed gauge is carried out on the front bed gauge arms, 
provided for gauge extension. In squaring and trimming 
small pieces, the material is inserted in the machine be- 
tween the cutting blades from the front of machine, 



24 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

gauging the work on the bed with either the short or 
the long bed gauge, or with the rear gauge, suiting the 
work that is to be sheared. 

A rear gauge attachment, furnished with the squaring 
shears, consists of two rods which are fastened to the 
crosshead or gate of the machine and to which two adjust- 
able gauge holders are attached. Through these gauge 
holders the gauge is adjusted to suit the size of strip to 
be cut, by moving the gauge to and from the lower cut- 
ting blade; and after the correct position of the gauge 



Gauge Clomping Knob 



Gouge Supporting Rod 




ge Holder 
Tightening 
Knob Adjustable Gauge Holder 



Guide Rods 



Figure 2. — Rear Gauge Attachment for Squaring Shears. 

is secured it is made tight through hand wheels in the 
gauge holders. Gauge holders are provided with means 
for accurate and fine adjustment of the gauge. The 
gauge guide rods are intended to assist very light sheets 
to find their way to the face of the gauge ; otherwise, the 
material might slip under the gauge, which would result 
in the making of a false or inaccurate cut. Sheets with 
usual stiffness will strike the rear gauge straight and true 
without the aid of any guide rods. Squaring shears are 
fitted with side guides, fastened on each end of the bed 
to facilitate more accurate squaring; a true cut being 
impossible unless the sheet to be squared or trimmed is 
pressed firmly against the side guides, at the same time 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 25 

allowing it to strike evenly with the rear or front gauge, 
whichever may be used. 

A graduated scale in fractions of inches is cut in the 
bed of the squaring shears along the slot in which the 
bed gauge bolts move. This scale, when setting the bed 
gauges, may be depended upon as accurate until the 
cutting blades are ground, when the accuracy of this 
scale is lost and it is advisable to secure all gauge set- 
tings, measuring from the cutting edge of the lower cut- 
ting blade to the face of the bed gauge with an ordinary 
rule ; and after correct alignment of the gauge is secured 
clamp the gauge securely by the gauge clamping knobs. 

Foot power squaring shears are manufactured in a wide 
variety of sizes and capacities. Where the material to 
be cut is not heavier than No. 20 gauge iron (U. S. Stand- 
ard), the market offers a light weight squaring shears 
with cutting blades measuring 30 inches in length. The 
foot power squaring shears shown in Figure 1 has a 
capacity for cutting No. 18 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 
standard), and is manufactured in several sizes, the 
cutting blades measuring 22, 30, 36, 42, and 52 inches, re- 
spectively. Larger squaring shears of the same capacity, 
though somewhat different in construction, are also of- 
fered in sizes 62, 72, 96, and 120 inches. Heavier types 
of foot power squaring shears are manufactured for cut- 
ting as heavy as No. 16 gauge iron (U. S. Standard), in 
sizes 30, 36, 42, and 52 inches. "When the material to be 
cut is heavier than No. 16 gauge iron, a power squaring 
shears should be used. 

Squaring shears cut fully the lengths mentioned and 
overrun about 1 inch, and the housings are far enough 
apart that sheets in width equal to the cutting length 
can be passed through from front to back without obstruc- 
tion. The capacities given apply to iron or soft steel. 
In cutting steel running higher in carbon, the hardness 
of the stock must be taken into consideration and the 



26 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

extreme thickness reduced accordingly. Squaring shears 
should never be used for material exceeding the extreme 
thickness given by the manufacturer, even if the pieces 
to be cut are narrow. In selecting a squaring shears it 
is always well to figure on ample leeway, as the capacity 
of the machine is influenced by the sharpness of the cut- 
ting blades and by the care with which adjustments are 
kept up by the operator. 

"Hold Down" Attachment, — Foot power squaring 
shears in all sizes for cutting No. 16 gauge iron, and 
those for No. 18 gauge iron, 36 inches and larger, have a 
"hold down." (See Hold Down, Figure 4.) According 
to the style of the squaring shears, the hold down operates 
automatically with the stroke of the gate or crosshead 
(see Figure 4), and on some types of squaring shears the 
hold down operates independently by hand. In either 
case the hold down causes a uniform pressure to bear upon 
the sheet of metal while the cut is being made, preventing 
the drawing of the sheet from between the cutting blades. 
"Without the hold down the pressure on the material is 
influenced with the hands and usually allows the material 
to draw away from between the cutting blades when mak- 
ing the cut, causing very inaccurate and unsatisfactory 
cutting. Therefore, according to the size of the machine 
and the gauge of material to be cut, the hold down has 
an important part. On very light material accurate cut- 
ting is possible without the hold down, particularly on 
squaring shears of short length. 

Foot Power Gap Squaring Shears. — I have described 
the squaring shears (Figure 1) as having housings far 
enough apart that sheets in width equal to the cutting 
length can be passed through from front to back without 
obstruction, — a cutting feature which is also practical 
with the foot power gap squaring shears (Figure 3) . The 
construction of gap shears gains for them an additional 
cutting advantage for cutting sheet of any length and 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 27 

of a width limited by the throat or gap in the housings 
or frame. A very convenient slitting gauge is attached 
to the right-hand housing for use in slitting sheets longer 
than the cutting blades. After the first cut the edge ob- 
tained at the previous stroke serves as a guide for the 
succeeding cuts and in this manner alignment of the suc- 
cessive cuts is obtained. 

Foot power gap squaring shears are manufactured in 




Figure 3. — Foot Power Gap Squaring Shears. 

cutting lengths 36, 42, and up to 52 inches for special re- 
quirements, with a maximum capacity for cutting No. 16 
gauge iron (U. S. Standard), and are made with a throat 
or gap of 18 inches. 

Power Squaring Shears. — Figure 4 shows a power 
squaring shears of modern design with the driving mecha- 
nism overhead, out of the way of the operator and free 
from the dirt and scale that usually fall from the sheet 
metal that is being cut. The housings have a gap of 1 
inch to the edge of the cutting blade to permit of trim- 
ming sheets of any length before squaring. The gap 



28 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



referred to also allows for sheets to be moved into cut- 
ting position sidewise without obstruction. The power 
squaring shears, overhead drive, are manufactured in 
lengths 30, 36, 42, 48, 60, 72, 96, 120, and 144 inches, and 
in a wide range of capacities. 



BraKeAdiustfnq ^ 
Knob 1 /Eccentric 

-Eccentric 



Gear Guard - N Col ^ r " 
Clutch 




feaugeClampingKnob^Treadle 



Long Bed Gauge 



r 




[Upper 

Cutting 
Blade 

Lower 
Blade 



Housing 



Bed Gauge Arm 



Figure 4. — Power Squaring Shears, Overhead Drive. 

The machine shown in the illustration has a capacity 
for cutting No. 14 gauge iron and lighter. 

Power Gap Squaring Shears. — Figure 5 illustrates a 
power gap squaring shears of new design, with the driv- 
ing mechanism overhead. The same advantages already 
described as applying to foot power gap squaring shears 
(see Figure 3) are true with power gap squaring shears, 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



29 



but they are made with a depth of throat or gap in the 
housings of 15 and 18 inches, and in a range of sizes and 
capacities as mentioned under power squaring shears, 
overhead drive, Figure 4. 

The machine illustrated (Figure 5) has a capacity for 
cutting No. 14 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). 



Brake Adjusting 



Knob 



Gear Guard Pinion-i 

Clutch \\Col/ar- 
-EccenTnc Strap 




Gauge Clamping Knob 



Housing 



Long Bed Gauged <H3ed Gauge Arm 

Figure 5. — Power Gap Squaring Shears, Overhead Drive. 



LEVER SLITTING SHEARS 

Sheet metal cutting lever shears are manufactured in 
various designs, intended for general shearing, trimming, 
and cutting, each claiming their particular advantages. 
The lever shears which I am about to describe may be 




30 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



summed up in three classes, namely, the combined bench 
and slitting shears, the scroll shears and the lever slitting 
shears. 

Bench and Slitting Shears. — Figure 6 illustrates a gen- 
eral utility shears surpassing all other shears in the va- 
riety of work performed, and which often proves a desir- 
able substitute where the work is too large or not of suffi- 

Slide 

Lever Counter 
balance Weight^ 

Angle 
Gauge 




Mitre Gauge 



Slitting Gauge 
Upper Cutting Blade 
Base 
Lower Cutting Blade 

Supporting Table 




anna©* 




Figure 6. — Combined Bench and Slitting Shears, with Illustrations of 
Work Cut from Blanks to Line. 

cient quantity to warrant the use of costly dies. The 
lower cutting blade is stationary, so that when cutting to 
line the mark may be easily followed with accuracy ; and 
the line scribed is always exposed to the view of the opera- 
tor, permitting of outside cutting, straight, or irregular 
cutting. It also allows for inside cutting on a sheet of 
metal, making a straight or irregular cut along a scribed 
line, avoiding the cutting of the outer edge of the sheet. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



31 



The upper cutting blade is fastened to a slide which moves 
in guideways parallel to the lower cutting blade by means 
of a counterbalanced hand lever, and is provided with a 
suitable table and adjustable angle and miter gauges, in 
addition to having a gauge in the cutting head or frame 
for straight slitting. 

The combined bench and slitting shears are manufac- 
tured with cutting blades measuring 6y 2 and 9 inches, 



Upper Cutting - SlittmgGau 
Blade 

Lower 

Cutting 

Blade 

Slide 



Upper Blade 
Adjusting 
Screw 




Tilting and 
Swivel Frame 



Cut Regulating 
Set Screw 

Base 



Hand Lever 



Figure 7. — Scroll Shears. 



with a depth of throat in the cutting head or frame of 
approximately 9y 2 and 19*4 inches respectively ; and with 
a maximum capacity for cutting No. 18 gauge iron and 
lighter (U. S. Standard), using the smaller machine, and 
12 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard) when the 
larger machine is used. 

Scroll Shears. — The scroll shears, Figure 7, has the 
same cutting utility, and in many ways it resembles the 



32 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



combined bench and slitting shears, Figure 6. But it has 
a smaller cutting blade and differs in respect to adjust 



Hand Lever 




Upper Cutting 
Blade Plate 

Hold Down 
and Guide 



lower Coiling Blade 
Adjusting Screws 



Toggle Links 

Upper Cutting Blade 
Slitting Gauge 



Lower Cutting 6lade 

Lower Cutting 
Blade Holder 



Figure 8. — Lever Slitting Shears. 

ment and operation of the cutting blades, claiming ai 
additional feature over the combined bench and slitting 
shears in having a tilting and swivel frame. The lowei 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 3£ 

cutting blade in the scroll shears is fastened to a slide, 
which moves in guideways parallel to a fixed and station- 
ary upper cutting blade by means of a hand lever. A set 
screw in the frame back of the lower blade regulates the 
length of cut, and through easy manipulation of this ad- 
justment the benefit of a full cut or a fraction thereof is 
secured. The scroll shears is very useful in cutting cir- 
cles, ovals, irregular curves, and such work, and its con- 
struction allows for cutting on the inside of a sheet of 
metal without cutting the outer edge. The frame will 
revolve in the standard and is adjustable to any angle 
required to suit the cutting in progress. 

The scroll shears are manufactured in two sizes, with 
cutting blades measuring 4 and 4 1 / 4 inches, with a depth 
of throat in the cutting head or frame of approximately 
10% and 17 inches respectively; and with a maximum 
capacity for cutting No. 20 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 
Standard). 

Lever Slitting Shears. — Unlike the shears already de- 
scribed (Figures 6, 7) lever slitting shears will not cut 
on the inside of a sheet without cutting the outer edge, 
but they have their advantages for general straight slit- 
ting and are so patterned as to allow of the slitting of 
sheet iron in any length or width. 

A serviceable and useful lever slitting shears is shown 
in Figure 8. A lower cutting blade of 8 inches is fastened 
to a holder which is adjustable for taking up the wear 
of the cutting blades ; and an upper cutting blade of the 
same length is fastened to a plate reinforced by the frame, 
the cut on a sheet of metal being made by means of a 
hand lever. In addition to having an adjustable slitting^ 
gauge, an angular shaped rod fastened to the frame serves 
as a guide and hold-down, which facilitates the cutting 
of sheets of any length. 

The maximum capacity of the lever slitting shears de- 
scribed is No. 12 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). 



34 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

ROTARY SLITTING SHEARS 

Rotary slitting shears are extensively in use and offered 
in a variety of sizes and capacities, but in principle they 
are nearly all the same. Their construction consists of 
a frame with a deep throat fitted with parallel cutter 
shafts connected by gears, and the slitting is done by 
means of a hand crank, or with a belt when the machine 
is fitted with pulleys and arranged for power drive. 

As with all shears having a throat, the depth of the 
throat is the determining factor as to the width of a sheet 
of iron that the shears will cut. The rotating of the cut- 
ters draws the material through the machine, and if the 
sheet of metal during the progress of cutting is pressed 
firmly against the slitting gauge, a clean straight cut is 
assured. The fact must not be overlooked that, when 
shearing very narrow strips, rotary cutters have a tend- 
ency to curl and twist the material out of shape ; and when 
the shearing of perfect narrow strips is most important, 
the squaring shears with a hold-down are the only shears 
that are so constructed as to make a clean cut without 
twisting or buckling the material. 

In the rotary slitting shears provision is made for tak- 
ing up the wear of the cutters, and in setting the cutters 
care and good judgment should be exercised, so as to 
allow them to rotate freely ; and they should not bind or 
rub against each other too hard. 

The rotary slitting shears affords a rapid means for 
slitting sheet iron used in cornice, furnace, blow pipe, 
ventilation work, etc., and may be utilized for conveni- 
ently cutting irregular curves and circles of a large radius 
when following a scribed line, in a fraction of the time 
it takes to do the work with the ordinary hand snips or 
with the bench shears. 

Figure 9 shows a rotary slitting shears mounted on 
heavy cast iron legs, intended for floor use. The rotary 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



35 



cutters have two cutting edges, making them reversible. 
The hand crank is adjustable to different leverages, short- 
ening the leverage for speed when cutting very light ma- 
terial; a longer leverage being necessary when cutting 



Cutter Cutter Adjust in; 

Shaft ^fScrcw 

Bearing 
Upper- V 
Rotary, 
Cutter^ 



^Cutter 

Adjusting 

Screw 



Frame 



Enclosed 
Gears 

Adjustable 

Hand 
Crank 




Lower 
Rotary 
Cutter 



Figure 9. — Rotary Slitting Shears. 



heavy sheet iron. Having a depth in the throat of 18 
inches, the shears will slit a sheet 36 inches wide. Where 
floor space in a shop is limited, this machine offers a 
splendid substitute for the long length squaring shears. 



36 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The capacity of the rotary slitting shears, Figure 9, is 
No. 16 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). 

Figure 10 illustrates a useful 'bench rotary slitting 
shears having a depth of throat of 9 inches and a capacity 
for cutting No. 20 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard). 



-Cutter Adjusting Screw 

Upper RotaryX^ ffame 

Cutter 



Gauye 
r Clamping Knob 




Lower Rotary 
Cutter 



Figure 10. — Rotary Slitting Shears for Bench Use. 

Angular Cutters. — Another type of rotary slitting 
shears is shown in Figure 11. Unlike the machines illus- 
trated in Figures 9 and 10, the cutters in these shears are 
fitted to angular shafts, the lower rotary cutter remain- 
ing in a fixed position, while the upper cutter may be 
raised out of contact with the lower by means of a cutter 
raising hand wheel, which permits cutting inside of a 
sheet of metal without cutting the outer edge. In these 
shears the depth of throat is 36 inches and it is claimed 
for this machine that it will cut No. 14 gauge iron and 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



37 



lighter (U. S. Standard). It meets the requirements for 
an efficient, practical, easily operated machine for the 
slitting of the sheet metal members so extensively used 
in ventilation, furnace, auto body and fender work, etc. ; 
the angular position of the cutters permitting a clean 

Upper Rotary Cutter 

-Cutter Raising Hand Wheel 

tadCrank^ sanction ClutchPulley 

rrame Xr^ | C(utch 




Variable 
5peed 
Gear Box 



Clutch Treadle 
Lower Rotary Cutter 



o 




Figure 11. — Rotary Slitting Shears with Angular Cutters. 



cut to be made on the inside as on the outside of the work. 
Squares, ovals, S-shaped curves, or any serpentine ir- 
regular curve with radius as small as 2 inches and larger, 
can be cut in the center of sheets without cutting in from 
the side, leaving the material flat and with clean and true 
edges. Where work is laid out and cut to line, circles 



38 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

. may be cut from square blanks 4 inches and larger. 
It is also claimed for these shears that circles as small 
as 3 inches in diameter may be cut when sheet iron not 
heavier than 18 gauge (U. S. Standard) is used. It is 
fitted with a hand crank and friction clutch pulley, hav- 
ing a positive clutch controlled through a foot treadle, 
which arrangement provides for both power and hand 
drive, interchangeable at will instantly, affording the 
operator full control of the machine as well as the work 
while the same is passing through the cutters. Three 
changes of cutter speeds are instantly secured through 
proper adjustment of a hand lever, fitted in a variable 
speed gear box, — an arrangement allowing for driving 
the cutters fast on light work and slow when heavy ma- 
terial is in use. 

ROTARY CIRCULAR SHEARS 

The circular shears are a necessity in practically every 
shop where circular blanks cut from sheet metal are used, 
such as the bottoms for vessels, cans, tanks, sheet metal 
barrels, etc. The cutting head of a circular shears re- 
sembling very much the rotary slitting shears, it is often 
utilized for straight slitting, and for this purpose an ad- 
justable slitting gauge is provided in the frame of the 
cutting head ; but the circular shears was designed chiefly 
for the cutting of outside circles or discs from tin plate, 
soft steel or iron, brass, copper, aluminum, etc. 

Construction. — The construction and operating princi- 
ples are the same in nearly all circular shears. Their 
main construction consists of a base and cutting head, 
with parallel cutter shafts driven with gears by means of 
a hand crank, or with a belt when the machine is arranged 
with pulleys for power drive. A sliding circle arm is 
fitted to the base and is adjustable for different diameter 
circles by sliding on the base to and from the cutters. 
The blank from which the circle is to be cut must be 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 39 

squared previous to cutting the circle. After being 
squared true and of a correct size nearest to the size circle 
to be cut, providing for as little waste as possible, the 
square blank is inserted between two clamping discs in 
the circle arm. Through an eccentric clamping lever, or 
with a crank screw or a hand wheel, according to the de- 
sign of the machine, the blank is securely clamped and 

rCutter Shaft Bearing 
Pressure Adjusting Screw \ Cutting Head 

Eccentric Ctamping LeverA r°ltp\[ 

Gears 



o 



o 



' Adjusting 

Clasp 

Nut 



Lochnut-/ / slitting Cutting Head 
Qampincj Discs -^ Gauge Adjusting Screw 

Figure 12. — Rotary Circular Shears. 

the rotating of the cutters draws the material through 
the machine, cutting a true circle. 

Operation. — To the base of the rotary circular shears, 
on which the circle arm slides, a scale graduated in frac- 
tions of inches is fitted. Then, if a circle 5 inches in 
diameter is to be cut, proceed to loosen the lock nut on 
the circle arm and set the sliding circle arm, drawing it 
to or from the cutters until the correct position of the 
circle arm is secured. Indicator on circle arm (not 
shown in the illustration, Figure 12) pointing to 5 inches 
on the scale, lock the circle arm securely through the lock 



40 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

nut. Place the square blank between the clamping discs 
in a central position of equal distance on all sides of the 
blank from the outside diameter of the clamping discs. 
If many of the same size of circles are to be cut, after 
the correct first- setting, adjust the swinging gauge so it 
will strike the edge of the square blank while remaining 
in the clamping discs. The machine properly set, any 
number of the same size circles can be cut accurately. 

Care should be exercised not to allow the cutters to 
have too much clearance or to rub against each other too 
hard ; and when adjustment of the cutters for more or less 
cutter clearance is necessary, the lower shaft to which the 
lower rotary cutter is attached can be drawn away or to 
the upper cutter by means of the adjusting clasp nut on 
the lower shaft next to the gear. After the correct adjust- 
ment is secured, be sure to fasten the adjusting clasp 
nut securely. The upper cutter shaft bearing is adjust- 
able and will raise or lower, allowing for the taking up 
of the wear of the cutters; and this adjustment should 
never be tampered with while the cutters are in good 
condition. 

Rotary circular shears are made in a wide variety of 
sizes and capacities. The one illustrated in Figure 12 is 
constructed for cutting a circle from 2% to 22 inches in 
diameter, from No. 22 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 
Standard). 

Ring and Circular Shears. — To better understand the 
real significance between the ordinary circular shears hav- 
ing parallel cutter shafts and the ring and circular shears 
arranged with cutters in an angular position, a compari- 
son of Figures 12 and 13 will prove helpful. I have al- 
ready described the circular shears (Figure 12) as having 
parallel cutter shafts, intended for outside disc or circle 
cutting, and unlike these the ring and circular shears 
(Figure 13) have a lower angular shaft fitted with a cut- 
ter, while the upper cutter is fitted to an almost parallel 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



41 



shaft ; and instead of remaining fixed, it raises and lowers 
by means of a cutter raising crank screw, which permits 
of the cutting inside of a square blank or circle, as shown 
in the illustration. 

For ordinary outside circle cutting, the ring and cir- 
cular shears does the same work as already described un- 



Upper Cutter 

Raising 
CranK Screw 

Upper Cutter 
Adjusting 
Clasp NuT 



Rotary CutUrs 

-Clamping Discs 
-Pressure Adjusting Screw 
-Eccentric Clamping Lever 
/—Ring Gouge 




Hand Crank 
Lower Cutter^ 
J " ^ Lower Cutter Adjusting 5crew 

Figure 13. — Ring and Circular Shears. 

der circular shears (Figure 12), and owing to the cutter- 
raising feature in the ring and circular shears, it is not so 
limited in the work performed. In addition to doing the 
work already described, the ring and circular shears offers 
a suitable means for cutting irregular curves when fol- 
lowing a scribed line, and for such work the sliding circle 
arm is not used. The rotary cutters being of small diame- 
ter, measuring approximately 1% inches in diameter, and 



42 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

set angular in position, they will cut as true and clean on 
the inside as on the outside of a sheet of metal. 

Operation. — To proceed in cutting an outside circle on 
the ring and circular shears, the reader will kindly refer 
to directions given under rotary circular shears (Figure 
12). To cut a circle out of a circle, for making a ring, or 
to cut a circle from the inside of a square sheet of metal, 
the prepared blank is clamped between the clamping discs 
in the usual way, and the sliding circle arm with the 
sheet metal blank inserted is brought toward the cut- 
ters, permitting as much of the edge of the sheet metal 
blank as necessary, according to the size of the inside 
circle that is to be cut, to slide between the cutters. With 
the proper alignment of the blank in the machine se- 
cured, bring the upper cutter down on the material by 
turning the crank screw hard enough, so that the cutters 
will cut the material without burring or buckling the 
edge. 

The ring and circular shears has in addition to the regu- 
lar swinging gauge a ring gauge which slides on a rod 
along the circle arm for facilitating the cutting of rings, 
and through the proper setting of both gauges many 
quantities of the same kind and size of circles and rings 
can be cut alike with accuracy. 

In using this machine never allow the cutters to have 
too much clearance or to rub against each other too hard ; 
and when adjustment of the cutters for more or less cutter 
clearance is necessary, a satisfactory adjustment of the 
cutters is secured through the adjusting clasp nuts next 
to the gears on both the upper and lower shafts. 

In cutting outside circles of a very small diameter, and 
sometimes when cutting a small circle inside of a circle 
for making a ring, if on the edge of the material there 
should appear a burr or a buckle, this indicates that the 
circle arm is in too straight a line with the center of the 
cutters; and in such case the circle arm must be set a 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



43 



trifle out of line with the center of the cutters —just 
enough for cutting a true and clean edge. This adjust- 




-5 ^ q 
x 



ment is secured through loosening the bolts marked A 
in the sliding circle arm plate and moving the circle arm 



44 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

as necessary until a proper adjustment is secured for 
assuring a clean cut. 

Ring and circular shears are manufactured in a wide 
variety of sizes and various capacities. The machine 
shown in Figure 13 is intended for bench use and is made 
in two sizes, for cutting circles from square blanks 3 x /4 
to 22 inches, and rings as small as S 1 /^ inches inside diame- 
ter and as large as 22 inches outside diameter, — from No. 
20 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard) ; the larger 
size machine cutting circles from square blanks 3^ to 
42% inches and rings as small as 3*4 inches inside diame- 
ter and as large as 42% inches outside diameter from No. 
20 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). 

Ring and Circular Shears for Power.— hi Figure 14 
the rotary slitting shears with angular cutters, as de- 
scribed under Figure 11, is again presented to show a 
base and sliding circle arm attached to the frame of the 
cutting head, making an efficient ring and circular shears. 
So arranged, this machine has a wide range of general 
usefulness for cutting circles from square blanks from 
12% to 64 inches diameter, and will cut rings with an 
inside diameter of 12% inches and outside diameter of 64 
inches, from No. 14 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard) ; in addition, to doing such work as described under 
Rotary Slitting Shears by utilizing the cutting head. The 
circle arm in this machine slides to and from the cutters 
on the base of the machine, but owing to its great weight 
a crank-and-chain arrangement provides for instantane- 
ous adjustment of the circle arm, cam locking levers being 
used to fasten the circle arm after the desired position 
has been secured. 

FOLDING MACHINES 

Folding machines are used very extensively to facili- 
tate the forming of locks or edges, as in preparing straight 
sheets of metal for receiving a wire; also for turning 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



45 



flanges at various angles, and to prepare locks before 
grooving, in vessels, tanks, pipe, cans, and such work. 

The most popular patterns of these machines and those 
used more extensively may be summed up in three dis- 
tinct types ; namely, the bar folder, sheet iron folder, and 
pipe folder. The advantages of each will be described 
here, the first and most important of the three being the 
bar folding machine. 



60° and 90 c 



Sharp or Closed Lock 
AryJe Stops j pen or Wire Lock 

y ^Folding Blade 



Foldinq 
Bar 



Wing 



Wedge Screw, 



/Folding 

Bar 

ft Handle 



Gauge A 
Lock Screw \ 

KeyWrench 



Graduated 
Adjustable Gauge 

Gauge Hand Wheel 5^ 

Friction Roller - 

Shoe SetScrew- 
I0°tol20° Adjustable Stop 

Figure 15. — Bar Folding Machine. 



Bar Folding Machine. — Experiments have proven the 
hand operated bar folding machine as more desirable for 
rapid execution than a power operated folding machine. 
The tinware and tin can manufacturers invariably use 
the hand operated bar folding machine, as more edges 
on a number of blanks can be formed with greater rapidity 
on a hand operated machine than on a similar folder op- 



46 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



erated by power. Absolutely correct proportionment of 
the folding bar is of great importance for rapid execu- 
tion, and while the market offers bar folding machines 
of numerous makes, the machine illustrated (Figure 15) 




Figure 16. — Working Parts of Bar Folding Machine. 



AA- 
BB- 
GG- 
DD- 
EE- 
FF- 
OG- 
HH- 

20- 
21- 

22- 
23- 
2h~ 
25- 



-Frame 

-Jaw 

-Bar 

-Wing for Bar 

-Blade 

-Wedge 

-Gauge 

- Slide 

-Wedge Screw 
-Stop Screw 
-Cap Screw 
-Shoe Set Screw 
-Blade Screw 
-Frame Screw 



II — Shoe 

J J — Friction Roller 
KK — Stop 

LL — Handle 
MM — Set Nut for Screw No. 23 

PP — Stop 

QQ — Cap 

RR — Gauge Hand Wheel and Pinion 

26 — Gauge Lock Screw 
21 — Wing Screw 
28 — Wedge Screw 
29 — Key Wrench 
31 — Gauge Springs 



is recognized by large and small users as most efficient 
for the shop where time is a big factor and many thou- 
sands of blanks must be edged daily. 

In using the word "lock" in connection with a folding 
machine, it means the same thing as a folded edge. Thus 
the fold of a closed lock is smaller in its radius than that 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 47 

of an open or round lock. This will be seen by referring 
to the preparation of a flat sheet of metal for lock seam- 
ing, where two corresponding edges are to lock together ; 
such as would be prepared in the ordinary stove pipe. 
or the body of a vessel, where a closed or sharp lock is 
preferable for facilitating the closing of the seam in an- 
other operation. Where an edge must be produced with 
a radius sufficient to receive a wire, the open or round 
lock, or as it is often termed, the wire lock, is used. A 
bar folding machine is adjustable, unlike other folding 
machines, for forming a sharp or closed and an open or 
round lock. The construction of the bar folding machine, 
therefore, covers this wide range of folding usefulness; 
whereas the ordinary type of folding machine is limited to 
forming a closed lock only. By the nicety of the work 
performed and its great accuracy, the bar folding machine 
has gained deserved popularity and no well-regulated 
shop should be without one of these useful machines. 

Operation. — A feature of great interest is an adjust- 
able gauge, graduated in fractions of inches, which moves 
by turning a hand wheel. When once set for the size of 
lock to be formed, the gauge is locked through tightening 
the gauge lock screw with a key wrench, after which any 
quantity of blanks may be edged of uniform size with 
accuracy and rapidity. The wedge screw in the folding 
bar is adjusted with a key wrench and when moved to the 
left, facing the front of machine, a wedge raises the 
wing for a closed lock ; while by moving the wedge screw 
to the right, an adjustment of the wing is secured for 
forming any convenient open lock, for receiving a wire, 
etc. 

In the manipulation of the wedge screw and while the 
lock adjustments are made, the folding bar must be held 
in a position a little more than a right angle with the 
edge of the folding blade. After the correct adjustment 
is secured, be sure to fasten the wedge screw again with 



48 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the key wrench. Two angular stops, fitted to these ma- 
chines, when properly set will stop the progress of the 
folding bar for a 60 or 90 degree angle. A graduated ad- 
justable stop is also provided for allowing the formation 
of angles from 10 to 120 degrees. 

For edging heavy stock and to form double locks more* 
clearance between the jaw and the folding blade is neces- 
sary. For more or less clearance between the jaw and 




Figure 17. — Sheet Iron Folder. 



the folding blade, adjusting the set screws in the shoes on 
each end of the machine will raise and lower the jaw. 
After making this adjustment, be sure to fasten again 
shoe set screws securely. 

The bar folding machine (Figure 15) is made in two 
sizes, with a folding length of 20 and 30 inches respec- 
tively, adjustable for forming closed and open locks % to 
1 inch wide, and in connection with the open locks, as 
formed by this machine, wire as large as % inch in 
diameter can be used. For locks 3/16 inch and wider 
No. 22 gauge iron and lighter may be used, and where 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



49 



the material is No. 24 gauge iron and lighter this machine 
will form a lock as small as % inch wide and on XX tin 
3/32 inch wide. 

Similar machines are manufactured in 37 and 42-inch 
lengths respectively, with a lock-forming capacity of % 



Gouge Screw 




Foldinq 
"Bar* 



Lock Increasing 
Steel Strips 



Figure 18. — Pipe Folding Machine. 



to l 1 /^ inches wide, and will operate on No. 20 gauge iron 
and lighter when the lock to be formed is 5/16 inch and 
larger; forming a lock as small as 3/16 inch when the 
material is No. 22 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard). 

Sheet Iron Folding Machine. — This machine is con- 
structed for general use. In common practice good re- 



50 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

suits can be expected from it, but for work demanding 
accuracy, uniformity, and a well finished lock these pat- 
terns do not compare with the bar folding machine de- 
scribed under Figure 15. Their construction consists of 
a milled cast-iron frame hinged to a machined cast-iron 
folding bar, with a steel folding blade. For a gauge a 
slotted steel strip is used, which moves parallel with the 
folding blade and is limited in its gauging capacity for 
producing a closed lock only of % to % inch. These 
folders are manufactured in several sizes and up to a 
maximum capacity of No. 20 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 
Standard). The machine illustrated (Figure 17), in the 
size of 30 inches with a capacity for working No. 22 gauge 
iron and lighter (U. S. Standard), represents a size more 
commonly in use than any other of this type of folding 
machine. 

Pipe Folding Machine. — This folder will do the same 
work as claimed for the sheet iron folding machine de- 
scribed under Figure 17, but its construction allows for 
finishing a lock closed over more than a similar lock 
formed with the sheet iron folder. It produces a lock 
ready for grooving or seam closing without the assistance 
of a mallet. Owing to its pipe edging feature, it differs 
widely from the bar folding machine (Figure 15) and the 
sheet iron folder (Figure 17). 

In edging or forming a lock on a sheet of iron that is 
intended to make up a common stove pipe, or any other 
sheet metal piece cylindrical in shape, with the two fold- 
ing machines already described, the blank must be edged 
or the lock formed while the sheet remains in the fiat, 
as a first operation, and rolled into a cylinder as a second 
operation; whereas, the pipe folding machine, the only 
folder of its kind, will permit the sheet of metal to be 
rolled into a cylinder as a first operation, and edged, or 
the lock formed, in a second operation. 

In edging, or the forming of a lock on cylinders after 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 51 

the cylinder is formed, in operating the pipe folder one 
edge of the cylinder is inserted between the folding bar 
and the lip of the folding blade. With a movement of the 
hand lever to the left, the work is clamped. The folding 
bar is then pulled over toward the operator until the lock 
is completed, when the folding bar is pushed back to its 
original position, and the work is released by throwing 
the lever to the right. 

For forming the corresponding edge the cylinder is 
inserted as before, but over instead of under the folding 
bar, finishing the corresponding edge the same as de- 
scribed before. 

The pipe folder will turn a lock 14 and % inch, and 
with the use of lock increasing steel strips, placed under 
the sheet of metal and between the folding blade, locks 
of additional sizes, % and % inch, are secured. 

These machines are just as practical for edging sheet 
metal in the flat as for edging formed cylinders. They 
are made in lengths of 30, 42, and 62 inches, but in edging 
flat sheets, unlike other folders, their respective lengths 
do not decide the width of the sheet that may be edged ; 
as a practical round rod attachment, when fitted into a 
trough provided in the lower bar of the machine, will 
permit the edging of flat sheets in any length, by sliding 
the sheet along. This secures a lock on the full length 
of the sheet in consecutive operations, enough to close the 
lock down with a mallet. The practice of edging sheets 
longer than the machine, however, is adopted only in 
emergency cases, or where only a little of that work is to 
be done. 

The capacity of the machine is No. 22 gauge iron and 
lighter (U. S. Standard). 

Operation. — In using the pipe folder just described 
special judgment should be exercised in changing the 
gauge to secure % and % inch lock. Care should be 
taken not to turn in the gauge screw on the lever end so 



52 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

far that it strikes against the folding bar, thus drawing 
the folding blade out of line; and the gauge screw on 
the opposite end should not be turned in so far that it 
pushes the gauge and folding blade out of line. The 
gauge screws described hold or release a hidden gauge 
under the folding blade, and have an important part in 
adjusting the machine for forming the two sizes of locks 
referred to. 

When the gauge screw next to the hand lever is screwed 
in and the gauge screw on the other end is unscrewed, 




Figure 19. — Can Top Folder. 

the gauge is held up next to the folding blade and turns a 
^4 inch lock. When the gauge screw next to the hand 
lever is unscrewed and the gauge screw on the other end 
of the machine is screwed in, the gauge is held down so as 
to turn a % inch lock. Before changing the gauge the 
hand lever should be pushed toward the left as far as it 
will go, in order to bring the screw holes to their proper 
places. As the screws that hold on the cap, folding blade, 
and gauge sometimes become loosened, see that these 
screws are tightened enough to hold the folding blade 
from springing, but not so tight that the folding blade 
slides hard. 

Can Top Folder. — Tapered sheet metal patterns for oil- 
can breasts, funnel bodies, etc., are usually cut from pat- 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



53 



tern, as shown in the illustration (Figure 19), and for 
edging sheet metal blanks with a taper, preparatory to 
forming, the can top folding machine is used. Tapered 



Rear Bed Gauge 



Side 
Guide 



Forming Bar 




Gauge Clamping 
Knob 

front Supporting 
Gauge Arm 



Front Gauge 
Bending Leaf Handle 

Treadle Rods 




Figure 20. — Square Box and Square Pipe Forming Machine. 

sheet metal blanks can not be folded with the ordinary 
folding machine designed for straight edging or folding. 
The can top folder is manufactured in three sizes, length 
of blades 10, 13 and 16 inches respectively, and as made 



54 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



regularly will form a lock of a width of % inch, but locks 
of larger width can be formed when the machine is spe- 
cially made. 

The capacity of the can top folding machine is No. 26 
gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). 

Square Box and Square Pipe Forming Machine. — The 
bodies of square and oblong cans, heater pipe, boxes, etc., 
with either lap or lock seams, are formed from the flat 



Gauge Clamping Knob 



Table Gaugey 
Table \ ll 




^Detachable 
terming Blade 

j 

Die Bed 



Cross Bar 
Depressing 5pring 



Treadle 

Figure 21. — -Square Pan and Box Forming Machine. 



sheet in separate operations with the square box and 
square pipe forming machine shown in Figure 20. 

This machine is constructed with a cast-iron table fitted 
with a gauge. The sheet to be formed is inserted between 
a forming bar and the table. The depression of a foot 
treadle forces the forming bar down on the material, 
clamping the same securely, and while the forming bar is 
kept depressed the bending leaf is raised with a handle 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 55 

and the first bend made. The succeeding bends are made 
in like manner, and when all bends are finished, the form- 
ing bar is raised and the formed work is slipped, without 
injury, from one end of the forming bar. 

The square box and square pipe forming machine is 
made in lengths of 15y 2 and 2iy 2 inches, with No. 24 
gauge iron and lighter capacity ; and in lengths of 30y 2 
and 36 inches, capacity No. 26 gauge iron and lighter 
(U. S. Standard). 

The size of the box or pipe that can be formed is 
determined by the size of the forming bar in the machine. 
The forming bar in the lS^-inch machine measures 
iy 2 xl% inches ; the 21%-inch machine has a forming bar 
2%xl%"; the 30i/2-inch machine forming bar measures 
2^x2 1 / 4 // , and the 36-inch machine is equipped with a 
forming bar 2%x3y 2 ". 

Square Pan and Box Forming Machine. — For forming 
the four sides of blanks to make a square or irregular 
shaped box or pan, the square pan and box forming ma- 
chine shown in Figure 21 was designed. 

The blank is first properly prepared, the corners being 
notched with the notching machine (see Figure 77), or 
with the ordinary hand shears. The notched blank is 
placed in the forming machine between a V-shaped form- 
ing blade and die bed and all ends are formed, one end 
at a time, by depressing a foot treadle. 

This machine is adapted for forming flaring and 
straight work, but where there are variations in the flare 
desired extra forming blades and die beds are used. For 
each size of pan or box an extra forming blade is neces- 
sary. 

The length of the die bed is 25 inches and the forming 
blades are made 8 inches or less in width and from 8 to 
25 inches long. With this machine it is possible to form 
pans as shallow as y 2 inch and as deep as 5y 2 inches ; and 
the lengths of pans that can be formed depends entirely 



56 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



upon the depth of pan required. With special blades 
and die beds a variety of bending operations can be per- 
formed with this useful machine. 

Brace and Wire Bender. — Figure 22 shows a brace and 
wire bender, a machine that is not only handy, but in- 
dispensable to have on the sheet metal shop bench for 



Bending Plate 
Grooved 




Set Screws 



Hold Down 
Screws 



Bending Plate 
Flat Surface 



Bending Bar 



Hand Lever 



Figure 22. — Brace and Wire Bender. 



making braces for gutters, leaders, cornices, etc. A great 
deal of flat iron up to 14 inch thick and 2 inches in width 
is used by the sheet metal worker, and the purpose of 
this machine is to bend such stock in angles, as may be 
required, of from to 90 degrees. Many a good folding 
machine, cornice brake, and vise has been easily 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 57 

" sprung " in an attempt to do such bending with them, 
instead of using this bending machine. 

Flat steel to be shaped is inserted under the flat sur- 
face of the bending plate, and in bending wire the bend- 
ing plate is reversed and the wire inserted under one of 
the grooves. Raising the bending bar by means of a 
hand lever, the bends are made. 

The bending plate is adjustable for turning sharp or 
round corners, and in using different thicknesses of metal 
the bending plate is regulated by means of the hold- 
down and set screws located in the top and at the back 
of the bending plate. The grooved surface of the bend- 
ing plate permits of the bending of wires, such as are 
used for wiring the tops of pans, boxes, etc., and several 
wires can be bent at the same angle in one operation. 

The hand lever is interchangeable and may be used 
in center or at either end of the machine. The bending 
plate in this machine being made of cast iron, it is sug- 
gested that a steel hardened plate be used where the 
machine is intended for wire bending more exclusively. 

BRAKES 

Brakes differ very widely in their construction, mecha- 
nism, and the work performed from the folding machines 
already described, and are not as limited in their folding 
and forming usefulness; having a capacity for forming 
locks and angles in a wide range of sizes and of unusually 
large lengths. The folding machine can only form a lock 
or edge as wide as the depth of the jaw in the machine 
will permit ; whereas, the brake allows the sheet of metal 
that is to be edged or formed to pass through the jaws 
from front to back without obstruction. 

A comparison may be made at this time of the folding 
machines illustrated in Figures 15 and 17. In operating 
the folding machine the sheet of metal to be worked is 
inserted under the folding blade and by raising the fold- 



58 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



ing bar and pulling the bar towards the operator the lock 
is formed. The folding machine throwing the sheet 
toward the operator in the forming of the lock, edge, or 
angle, is not at a disadvantage when working small pieces, 
but where the sheets are large the brake invariably proves 
a more convenient means for edging. In operating the 
brake the sheet to be edged rests on a bed and when it 



Folding Blade 
folding Bar- 
Pin Gauge 
Adjuster ^ 
6et6crew 



Adjustable 
Stop Pin 




Key Wrench 

Treadle 
Rods and 
Turnbuckle 



Treadle Spring 

Toot Treadle 



Figure 23. — Open Throat Folding Machine. 



is m a proper position, ready for edging, the material is 
securely clamped and remains in a fixed and stationary 
position while the bend is made. 

Open Throat Folder, — The construction of the brake 
and of the open throat folder provides for edging sheet 
metal as described. 

Figure 23 illustrates a modern type of open throat 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



59 



folder which operates similarly to the floor brake, or what 
is better known as the cornice brake (Figure 24). 




In operating the open throat folding machine, the sheet 
of metal being properly inserted in the machine between 



60 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the clamping bar and bed, the clamping bar is brought 
down on the material through the depression of a foot 
treadle and spring, and the foot treadle is not released 
until the folding bar is raised and the forming of the 
edge, lock, or angle is completed. The adjustable stop 
pin on the right end of the machine is adjusted through 
screw A by a key wrench for stopping the progress of the 
folding bar at any angle. Spring pin gauges are fitted 
in the folding bar, which permit the forming of locks from 
y 3 e to li 3 e inches in width on the 30-inch machine, and 
from x 3 6 to li 5 6 inches on the 42-inch machine. The 
open throat folding machines in the lengths mentioned 
have a capacity for operating on iron of No. 22 gauge and 
lighter (U. S. Standard). As the sheet of metal that can 
be edged or formed passes through the jaws from front 
to back without obstruction, the machine is practical for 
forming a wide range of angles. Where the angle to be 
formed is of a width greater than the gauging capacity 
of the machine, the sheet at the point of edging is laid 
out with the prick punch or scribed with the scratch awl 
and the angle formed to line. Through separate opera- 
tions, or one bend at a time, the open throat folding ma- 
chine, in addition to performing a variety of folding op- 
erations, is adapted for forming square pipe % to 1% 
inches square and % to 2 inches square respectively. This 
machine also claims an additional feature over the ordi- 
nary folding machine as a useful means for forming both 
single and double locks straight or tapering. 

Cornice Brake. — The cornice brake shown in Figure 24, 
like the open throat folding machine (Figure 23) has 
open jaws, and the sheet metal to be formed remains sta- 
tionary and in a fixed position, depending upon a bend- 
ing leaf or folding bar for effecting the folding operation. 

The sheet of metal being properly inserted in the cor- 
nice brake, between the bed and the clamping bar, the 
clamping bar is brought down on the sheet by means of 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



61 



foot treadles at either end of the machine. The proper 
position of the material for a correct bend to be made 
being found, it is held securely clamped by means of cam 
levers, provided on both ends of the machine. The bend 
made, the hand levers are thrown back and the work re- 
leased. A stop bracket is provided, and when set prop- 




Figure 25. — Fourth Leaf Attachment as Fitted to Cornice Brake, 

Figure 24. 

No. 2. — Showing the machine set ready to make bends 1 with sheet in 
clamps. 

No. 3. — Position of front leaf after the square and quarter round 
bends have been made ; also the position when setting the upper or 
fourth leaf. 

No. 4. — Shows fourth leaf thrown back, and wood former removed, 
ready for making square bends and fillets. 

To use cornice brake for making circular or semi-circular forms : 

Put the formers or half round molds in place on apron B of ma- 
chine. See that the former is down solid and even with the top of 
apron B. Turn the apron B still higher, until the fourth leaf C rests 
on the iron plate at the bottom of former A. Then set the clamp D 
to hold the fourth leaf in place, and the brake is ready to form cir- 
cular work. Every time the former is changed to a different size, 
change the fourth leaf to match the former, setting it the same way. 

To use the brake for common work, turn the fourth leaf back as 
shown at E in Cut No. 4, then work it the same as any ordinary brake. 



erly will stop the progress of the bending leaf, to form 
any desired angle. 

The universal rule of mechanics that additional lever- 
age gives greater strength is taken advantage of through 
providing a forcing bar on the bending leaf, reinforcing 
the leaf for the bending of heavy sheets, and this attach- 



62 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



ment is easily removed when not required. In cornice 
work where circular and semicircular forming make for 
the greatest bending, this cornice brake will take care of 
such work efficiently. 

For the forming of circular and semicircular bends 
with cornice brakes, wooden forms are always provided, 
these being fitted as required, on the bending leaf. In 






l 




A ) 


A 




Figure 26. — A Few of the Many Forms that Can be Made on the 

Cornice Brake. 
The bead on gutter, as shown in illustration at A, is made with the 
Gutter Beader. — See Figures 79-80. 



making irregular bends, the material is inserted in the 
machine in the usual way. The bending leaf being raised 
to a proper angle, the same as when proceeding to form 
an ordinary lock or angle, and being held in that posi- 
tion, the material left protruding from the edge of the 
bending blades is shaped — usually with the hands — over 
the wooden form on the bending leaf, producing a cir- 
cular shape in the sheet of metal conforming with the 
shape of the wooden form used. 

The hand method for circular forming with the cornice 
brake is an operation common with the ordinary type of 
cornice brake, but with a brake such as shown in Figure 
24 the hands are left free for operating the machine, owing 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



63 



to an attachment which allows the circular forming to be 
effected automatically, as will be seen in Figure 25. 

As the cornice brake does not have a gauge, the sheet 
is laid out previous to forming with the prick punch or 
scratch awl, breaking the material to line or punch marks 
made in the sheet. 

Cornice brakes are manufactured in a wide variety of 



Hand Lever- 




Eccentrics 



Figure 27. — Combination Brake and Folder. 



sizes and capacities, 96 inches being the size most com- 
monly used in cornice work practice. 

Combination Brake and Folder. — In principle the com- 
bination brake and folder (Figure 27) resembles the cor- 
nice brake, but is constructed for forming locks with 
a radius sufficient for receiving a wire. Its further prac- 



64 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



ticability extends as far as that of the regular cornice 
brake in forming sharp locks, angles, circular and semi- 
circular bends, etc. 

In operation the combination brake and folder differs 



Clamping Bar 



folding Bladen 




Figure 28. — End View of Combination Brake and Polder. 



from the cornice brake (Figure 24) in that the clamping 
bar is brought down on the material and securely clamped 
through eccentrics actuated by hand levers from either 
end of the machine. In this more modern brake this ar- 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY ar- 

rangement represents a one-man feature, making th& 
changing of positions for the clamping of the work unnec- 
essary, a feature of individuality not to be found in any 
other brake. 

Adjustments are provided for in the eccentric con- 
nection, permitting a maximum pressure to bear on the 
material in the machine while in the process of forming, 
thus preventing the work slipping from a true line. This 
adjustment is secured through loosening the top nut A 
and tightening the lower nut B for heavy stock, and the. 
reverse when lighter materials are used. The bending; 
plate marked E is adjusted by means of a suitable wrench 
provided with the machine, and may be raised or lowered: 
for the purpose of forming a closed lock or an open lock 
for receiving wire in various sizes up to as large as %, 
inch in diameter. The adjustable stop gauge C, when 
properly set, provides for the forming of angles of any 
desired degree. 

The form D is detachable, and to this form the folding 
blade is attached. Where special work requires it, this 
form may be quickly replaced for sectional short forms ; 
and when such special forms are used the machine is 
highly adaptable for a wide range of special work, such as. 
pan work up to 4 inches in depth and of a width in accord- 
ance with the depth of the pan to be formed. 

The combination brake and folder has another inde- 
pendent feature, consisting of an adjustable gauge for 
gauging angles from % to 4 inches. This gauge, F, is 
fitted in such a manner that in the process of forming 
and in the operation of raising the bending leaf G, the 
gauge F throws back out of the way, permitting the bend- 
ing leaf O to rise to its highest point without any obstruc- 
tion. 

This machine has a working capacity for forming open 
or closed locks from % to 1% inches in width, in addi- 
tion to forming angles of any size on sheet iron No. 24: 



■66 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 




I 



CL 



° s 

Q 
00 



Z2ZL 



z 

o 

QL 



I ^ 




£ 

£ 



o 
U 



o 

a 
« 

a 



05 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



67 




'68 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

gauge and lighter (U. S. Standard), and has a wide angle 
maximum forming capacity on No. 16 gauge iron and 
lighter (U. S. Standard). 

For cornice work, where the making of circular and 
semicircular bends is necessary, the proper forms are 
furnished with the combination brake and folder; and 
when circular forms are used in connection with this 
machine they are attached to the bending leaf, G. All 
irregular bends are made in a manner similar to that 
described under Cornice Brake (Figure 24), through a 
liand operation. 

Steel Cornice Brake. — For outdoor construction work 
the steel cornice brake is preferred over brakes of all- 
iron construction, owing to the convenience it offers in 
shifting from one place to another, due to its light weight. 
A cornice brake is a necessity in every well-regulated shop, 
but the small shop could not well afford a brake until 
the machine of steel construction was perfected. There 
are many of these machines now in use, and as important 
points relative to their adjustment and operation have 
never been fully covered elsewhere, some of the charac- 
teristic features of the Chicago steel cornice brake will 
be described here. 

Setting Up. — The first important point in setting up 
n cornice brake, or any other machine for that matter, 
is to observe carefully that the machine sits level on the 
floor and to keep all working parts well oiled. When set- 
ting up the Chicago steel cornice brake, inspect the large 
truss rods, seeing that they are reasonably tight. This is 
done by tightening the nuts marked S, T and Z7 in Figure 
29. Particular attention should be paid to the small 
truss rod in the rear of the upper and lower jaws, which 
should also be reasonably tight. On the lower jaw this 
rod should be tightened to the extent of raising the jaw 
about 1/32 inch above the upper edge of the apron in the 
center. The rod is tightened by means of the nut marked 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



69* 



Z y Figure 30. This adjustment will allow for the clamp- 
ing of the sheet securely in the center. 

The purpose of the truss rods, aside from giving addi- 
tional strength to the machine, is to make adjustments so 
that the brake will bend the same in the center as on the 
ends. 

Operation.— In bending heavy material it is advisable 
to set the upper jaw back. This is done by loosening cap 




Figure 31. — Chicago Steel Cornice Brake (End View). 



screw and set screw M, and tightening set screw P T 
Figure 31. It is important that cap screw be tightened 
after the upper jaw is set to the desired point. There 
should be enough space for the material between the upper 
jaw and the bending leaf when the latter is raised to a 
horizontal position. Adjustment for clamping the ma- 
terial is made by loosening bolt F, Figure 31, and turning 
the eccentric nut E shown in the same figure to the de- 
sired point, and then tightening bolt F. 



TO 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Should the material creep forward when clamping, see 
that the pin marked L in Figure 31 is down tight before 
the bending edge of the upper jaw clamps the sheet. If 
this pin is not down at the proper time, place a block 
under the rear of the legs at the point marked R, Figure 
31. This will bring the pin to the proper position. Should 
the sheet throw over farther on one end than the other, 




Figure 32. — Showing Method of Fastening Forms. 

set the edge of the upper jaw back on which the sheet is 
thrown over the farthest. 

Short heavy pieces should be bent in the center of 
the brake. This equalizes the strain. 

A steel angle bar, marked 1 in Figure 33, is provided, 
with the Chicago steel cornice brake, and is intended to 
bolt on the edge of the bending leaf, for bending heavy 
sheets. This gives additional leverage. The %-inch bar 
marked 2, Figure 33, is made of special carbon steel and 
is so attached to the bending leaf that it can be removed 
to allow clearance for making a narrow reverse bend. 
This bar should not be removed for any other purpose. 

The balance weights attached to the bending leaf, shown 
at each end of the machine in Figure 29, can be raised 
or lowered to suit the convenience of the user. 

Figure 31 at G and Q shows an adjustable stop gauge 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



71 



which can be used either to regulate the angle of the bend, 
where duplicate work is done, or the apron can be raised 
and set for crimping work and for making curves or 
molds. 

Use of Formers. — The Chicago steel cornice brake is 
furnished with formers, of which there are five sizes; 
namely, 3, 2*4, 1%, 1, and % inch. For circular or 
irregular bends these formers are clamped to the edge of 




^ 



Figure 33. — Showing How ^teel Bars Are Used for Increased Leverage. 

the apron, as shown in Figure 32, marked 3 ; and are held 
securely by means of friction clamps, marked 4. After a 
square bend is made on the sheet, the former is placed in 
position as described and another former is placed on 
the exposed part of the sheet, which is then pressed down 
by hand. The square bend can be made on a number of 
sheets and the curves bent afterward, as the wide opening 
of the jaws permits the sheets to pass over the former. 
In forming cornices or other sections of girth, it is 
advisable to start a bend near the center or make a kink 
on the opposite edge from the bend made first, so as to 
equalize the buckles in the sheet. The reason for this is 
that sheets are not always perfectly flat, and if one edge 
is left buckled while the other edge is straightened by 
clamping in the brake and a bend is subsequently made 



72 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

in the buckled part, it will straighten out the buckle and 
will throw the first made bend out of line. 

The observing mechanic will learn many other valuable 
details through the practical use of this machine. 

The steel cornice brake for hand use is manufactured 
in a variety of sizes up to 12 ft. in length and in a wide 
range of capacities. 

Steel Motor Driven Brake. — Figure 34 illustrates a 
steel motor driven brake, which is made in a variety of 
isizes and capacities. It is claimed for this brake that it 
will bend steel plate % inch thick and of a length of 12 ft. 
Similar machines are manufactured of very heavy capa- 
city, arranged to operate either by hand gearing, belt 
drive, or direct motor drive. 

FORMING MACHINES 

Forming machines, or as they are sometimes called, 
rolls, are a necessity in every sheet metal shop, and prob- 
ably no other machine is used more extensively. The 
construction of the forming machine is very simple, con- 
sisting of a left and right end frame having three solid 
steel rolls connected with gears, operated by means of a 
hand crank or with a belt when fitted with pulleys for 
power drive, and very often driven with a direct motor 
connected with the gearing in the machine. The forming 
machine is very useful for forming sheet iron into cylin- 
ders of various diameters, similar to the ordinary stove 
pipe, elbows, can bodies, vessels, tanks, etc. 

The general type of all forming machines is similar, 
though there are many variations in their mechanism. In 
principle the forming is done by three rolls. The two 
front rolls grip the sheet of metal and force it against the 
rear roll, which bends it around the front upper roll, 
forming the cylinder. The size of circle that can be 
formed on a forming machine depends on the nearness of 
the rear or forming roll to the front upper roll in the 



74 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



machine. The pressure of the gripping rolls, which are 
the two rolls looking from the front of the machine, is 
regulated by thumb screws, and the rear or forming roll 
is regulated in the same manner. 

Operation. — There is no set rule that may be applied 
for the setting of a forming machine to secure any desired 
circle. The adjustments are best secured through experi- 
ments. The sheet of metal to be formed is inserted from 
the front of the machine and passed through the two 

Gear Studs 

/ 



— Forming Roll Thumbscrew 
Upper Gripping Rol I Thumbscrew 

Rear Forming Roll; 
-Left End Frame 



-Right 
Frame 



Grooves 
for 

JForminq 
Lower Front Gripping Roll Wire 

Upper Front Gripping Roll 
Stay Rods 

Figure 35. — Forming Machine with Solid Housings. 



front gripping rolls, securing uniform pressure of the 
rolls on the material through thumb screws, so that the 
sheets will ride through the rolls freely. The sheet, on 
passing through the gripping rolls, will strike the rear 
or forming roll, if adjusted high enough, thereby forming 
a circle. If the circle secured in the first experiment 
should not prove of correct diameter, the lowering of 
the rear or forming roll will increase the diameter 
of the cylinder, or by raising the forming roll the 
diameter of the cylinder will be decreased. In form- 
ing cylinders of very small diameters the blank as 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



75 



soon as entered between the gripping rolls must be given 
enough curvature with the hands by means of bending the 
material upward, otherwise it will not strike the rear 
forming roll for the proper shaping of the cylinder to be 
formed. When the operator becomes accustomed to the 
forming machine and its mechanism, accurate settings 
are easily made after the first few trials, according to 
the judgment used. 

Figure 35 shows a standard type of forming machine, 
having solid housings, generally used for ordinary work. 




Figure 36. — Forming Machine, Slip Roll Pattern. 



It would be well here carefully to compare Figures 35 
and 36, noting the difference in construction of the frames 
between the forming machine with solid housings and the 
forming machine, slip roll pattern. This being done, I 
will describe the difference between the two forming ma- 
chines illustrated in relation to their practicability. 

Forming Machine, Slip Boll Pattern. — The slip roll 
forming machine has an advantage over the forming ma- 
chine with solid housings, in that it permits the formed 
work to be readily slipped off from the end of the front 
upper roll; whereas, with the forming machine having 
solid housings, the work after being formed must neces- 



76 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

sarily be slipped over the front upper roll, and unless 
the operator is an experienced hand and skilled in his 
art the work will be thrown out of shape or malformed, 
which is impossible where the slip roll forming machine 
is used. The slip roll machine also aids in forming a cyl- 
inder after the lock or edge is turned on the flat sheet 
with the folding machine. The skillful operator is able to 
slip the sheet of metal with the lock turned through the 
gripping rolls without mashing the lock, to as good ad- 




Figure 37. — Forming Machine, Slip Roll Pattern — Back Geared. 

vantage on the forming machine with solid housings as 
on the forming machine, slip roll pattern • but the inex- 
perienced operator will have better success with a forming 
machine, slip roll pattern, when handling such material. 

In all forming machines several convenient grooves of 
various widths are cut in the rolls on one end and it is 
between these grooves that sheets previously wired should 
be rolled. These grooves are cut purposely to facilitate 
the forming of cylinders which have been previously wired 
in the flat sheet, and to form straight wire into circles. 

Forming machines are manufactured in a variety of 
lengths, with rolls measuring 1 inch in diameter and 
larger. For the ordinary sheet metal shop, forming 
machines with solid housings and slip roll pattern are 
used quite extensively in lengths of 30 and 36 inches, with 
rolls measuring 2 inches in diameter. For very heavy 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 77 

and large work rolls are selected measuring from 2% to 4 
inches in diameter, and for extraordinary requirements 
forming machines with rolls very much larger in diame- 
ter than 4 inches are offered. 

Figure 37 shows a forming machine, slip roll pattern, 
back geared and intended for very heavy work. When 




Figure 38. — Forming Machine, Slip Roll Pattern — Back Geared, 
Direct Motor Drive. 

required to stand on the floor the heavy forming machine 
is fitted to suitable cast-iron floor legs, and when arranged 
for power the shaft is extended and a tight pulley or 
tight and loose pulleys are fitted. 

The machine shown in Figure 38 is the same machine 
as shown in Figure 37, but mounted on cast-iron floor 
legs, with a direct connected motor. 



78 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Funnel Forming Machine. — For forming conical and 
tapering work of various angles, such as can tops, fun- 
nels, lamp shades, etc., the funnel forming machine shown 
in Figure 39 was designed. Two tapered steel rolls 10 
inches in length grip the material and a third tapered 
rear roll does the forming. The two gripping rolls are 



Upper Roll Depressing 
Lever 



Treadle Rod 



Gouge 
Gripping Rolls 




Third Tapered 
forming RoH 



Adjustable" 
Third Tapered forming Roll Holder 

Figure 39. — Funnel Forming Machine. 

brought together and the material is clamped through 
the depression of a foot treadle, and the work formed by 
means of a hand crank. Through the proper adjustment 
of the third tapered rear roll various tapers can be 
formed, measuring as small as % inch/at the small end of 
the taper and a diameter of 3 inches at the large end. The 
third tapered rear roll, not shown in the illustration, is 
supported by a holder, which is adjustable for setting the 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



79 



rear roll close to or away from the two tapered gripping 
rolls, and is also adjustable to various angles to suit the 
work to be formed. Where good judgment is used in the 
setting of this machine, it is not difficult to adjust and 
operate it so as to secure any number of tapers of uniform 
size and angle. 

The funnel forming machine is very practical for use 
on sheet iron not heavier than No. 24 gauge (U. S. Stand- 
ard). 

GROOVING MACHINES 

Grooving machines follow the folding machines (Fig- 
ures 15, 17, 18) and are intended for closing or grooving 

Flattening Roll 
Traveling Carnage^ \ UpperBar 

-j" ----- - 

from 



Latch 




tension Eccentrics 

Grooving horn 
Adjusting Screw 
Adjustable Hand Crank 



Figure 40. — Grooving Machine. 



the seams previously prepared with the folding machine 
in pipes, cans, tanks, etc. (See Figure 41.) A closed lock 
is first turned on the sheet of metal by the use of the fold- 
ing machine. The sheet is then rolled into a cylinder by 
the forming machine (Figures 35 and 36), when the 
corresponding edges, as prepared in the cylinder, are 
snapped together and laid on the grooving "horn in the 



80 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

grooving machine. The grooving rolls in the grooving 
machine run over the seam lengthwise, effecting an opera- 
tion called "grooving" or "seam closing/ ' and complet- 
ing the lock, as shown in Figure 41. 

The best machine of its kind for ordinary work and 
where the material to be used is not too heavy, is shown 
in Figure 40. It differs from the ordinary grooving 
machine in that it is more rapid and convenient. The 
operator stands in front of the machine and does not have 
to change his position when inserting and removing work 




Figure 41. — Showing Section of Pipe Before Grooving, and the Same 
Section After Grooving, with Seam Located on the Outside. 

or operating the machine. The traveling carriage, 
arranged with one grooving and one flattening roll, on 
completion of its run over the seam in the work is quickly 
and easily returned to the starting point, by releasing the 
lever A and pushing the traveling carriage back by hand. 
The adjustable stop B on the upper bar stops the trav- 
eling carriage at any desired point to suit the length of 
the work to be grooved. The adjustable stop C on the 
lower bar prevents the work from slipping during the 
process of grooving. A latch connects and holds secure 
the upper bar and the grooving horn. This latch is thrown 
back before the work can be inserted in the machine. 



SHEET METAL WOTCKTNG MACHINERY 



81 



When the work is properly placed over the grooving horn 
the latch is closed, preventing any spring of the grooving 
horn while the traveling carriage passes over the seam. 

The grooving horn is reversible and is made with a 
series of planed grooves and a flat surface. When it is 
desired that the seam or groove appear on the outside of 
the work (see Figure 41), the flat surface of the grooving 




Upper Bar 



Traveling 
Carriage \ 







Groovinq 
*floll 




Tension Spring 



Grooving Horn 



Standard 



friction Roll 



Figure 42. — Grooving Machine, Short Horn. 

horn is set upward, using one of the grooved rolls to suit 
the size of the seam as prepared in the work, and one 
flattening roll. If the seam is to be located on the inside 
of the work, one of the grooves planed in the grooving 
horn, nearest the size of the seam in the work, is selected, 
and the grooving horn is adjusted so that the selected 
groove is on top. Using one flattening roll in the travel- 
ing carriage provided with the machine, the flat roll pass- 
ing over the seam will press it in the groove planed in the 
grooving horn, thus locating the seam on the inside of the 
work. 



82 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

The grooving machine, Figure 40, is manufactured in 
length of 30 inches and will groove work 2y 2 inches diam- 
eter and larger, on material as heavy as No. 24 gauge 
iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). 

For small work, especially where many pieces of the 
same kind are to be grooved, a short-horn grooving 
machine is preferable. Figure 42 illustrates a grooving 
machine for such work. This machine has a tapered 
grooving horn measuring 3 inches at the large end and 
1% inches at the small end, with a length of 20 inches. 
The grooving horn on this machine is not reversible and 
the groove or seam locates itself on the outside of the 
work, as illustrated in Figure 41. Being intended for 
very light work, a flattening roll is not fitted to the trav- 
eling carriage. 

The market offers a variety of grooving machines in 
various designs and capacities, hand operated and for 
power drive, but in general principle they are all the 
same. 

BENCH MACHINES 

The bench machine is a valuable asset in every shop, 
whether sheet metal work is carried on moderately or 
extensively. Its construction comprises a frame with 
shafts and gears, and rolls, or as they are sometimes 
called, faces, of various shapes. These have a very impor- 
tant part in the preparation of sheet metal cylinders, 
such as cans, tanks, vessels, etc. According to the design 
of the rolls in the machine, they prepare a groove or seat 
in sheet metal work for receiving a wire, complete the 
operation of wiring, turn a burr or flange preparatory 
to double seaming, and set down seams preparatory to 
double seaming, in addition to performing a variety of 
other operations making impressions in flat or irregular 
shaped sheet metal. The bench machines about to be 
described are classified as turning machines, wiring 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



83 



machines, burring machines, and setting-down machines, 
and will be described in that order. 

Turning Machines. — Figure 43 shows the turning 
machine as regularly manufactured and a machine very 
commonly in use for preparing a seat in the bodies of 
vessels and such work, for receiving a wire, as shown in 
Figure 44 at A. In operating the turning machine the 



Thick 

Turninq 

Rolls 



Thin 
Turning 
Rolte 



Crank Screw , 
Crank Screw \r 




Adjusting 
^/Clasp Nut 

Rocking Box 



Gauge Adjuster 
Rocking BoxScrew 



Upper Bearing 



Figure 43. — Turning Machine. 



cylinder to be prepared to receive a wire is allowed to 
rest on the lower roll, one edge of the cylinder striking 
against the gauge. According to the size of wire to be 
used, the gauge is adjusted to allow ample material to 
cover the wire for the wiring operation, which will be 
described later. The gauge being properly set and the 
edge of the cylinder to be creased resting on the lower roll 
while pressing it hard against the gauge, the upper roll 
is depressed by turning the crank screw, allowing the roll 
to strike the material slightly. Turning the rolls one 



84 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



revolution with the hand crank, the rolls make a slight 
crease around the edge of the cylinder. After this crease 
is secured the crank screw is given another slight turn. 
In a second and third revolution of the rolls, starting to 
tilt the work upward, and one or two additional revolu- 
tions, bringing extra pressure of the rolls to bear on the 
work through the crank screw, a deep groove is formed ; 
and in the operation of tilting the work upward, in the 
process of turning the groove, ample material is left to 



AO 



i 



Pa 



I 



Figure 44. — A, A, Seats for Wire, Made on Turning Machine. 

work around the wire after it is laid in the groove made 
for it. Practice is necessary to make an efficient turning 
machine operator, but the machine and the work per- 
formed are simple and good results are easily attained 
after a few trials. 

The turning machines described are made in two sizes. 
The small turning machine has rolls measuring 2^ inches 
diameter and will prepare work for wire as large as 
T 3 g inch diameter and as small as 9/64 inch diameter. The 
large size turning machine, having rolls measuring 3 
inches diameter, will prepare work for receiving a wire 
as large as 15/64 inch diameter, and as small as 11/64 
inch diameter on No. 22 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



85 



Standard). Larger and heavier turning machines of No. 
18 gauge iron and lighter capacity, and for preparing 
work for wire as large as T % inch, are also manufactured 
and in these machines the rolls measure S 1 /^ inches in 
diameter. 

Wiring Machines. — The wiring machine, Figure 45, is 
used in close connection with the turning machine, Figure 
43. The turning operation having been well performed 



Crank Scr x ew Stud 
Upper Bearing 
Upper Shaft 
Upper Roll 
Gauge 
Form/no Gauqe 
Idler Roll^ 
Forming Gauge 
Lower Roll 

forming Gauge 
Worm Gear 




Crank Screw 

Frame 

Adjusting 
Clasp Nut 
Crank 



Rocking Box 



Rocking Box Screw' 
Gear 



Forming Gauge 
Worm Gear Screw 

Figure 45. — Wiring Machine. 



(see Figure 44) , the wire that is to fit into the seat of the 
vessel as prepared with the turning machine, must be 
rolled into a circle of a diameter near the diameter of the 
vessel or cylinder. The forming machines (Figures 35, 
36), have grooves cut in their rolls for the purpose of 
receiving straight wire and forming it into circles. The 
wire ring secured thus is slipped into the seat prepared 
by the turning machine, held in its place with the aid of 
a mallet, closing the metal in the cylinder around the wire 
one or two inches over the horn in the wiring machine 
standard (see Figure 55) or over a bench stake. 

Proceed to adjust the forming gauge and place the 
cylinder with the wire inserted between the rolls in the 



86 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



machine, adjusting the gauge in the rear of the machine 
so that the edge of the upper roll will clear the outer edge 
of the wire. Then depress the upper roll by means of 
turning the crank screw, but not too hard for the first 
revolution of the rolls. In the second and third revolu- 
tion of the rolls, permit the upper roll to press harder, 
continuing to close the material left by the turning 
machine around the wire ; and as a finishing operation 
allow the work to tilt upward, working the material com- 
pletely and compactly in under the wire (see Figure 46), 
completing the operation of wiring. 

b<8T~ w, ' re5 — 19b 



Figure 46. — B, B, Metal Closed Around Wire by Wiring Machine. 



The wiring operation with the wiring machine is not 
difficult with a little practice. The forming gauge in the 
machine has an idler roll which facilitates the wiring of 
cylinders, but perfect wiring with the wiring machine is 
possible with or without the use of the forming gauge, 
and when not required it is easily detached. 

The wiring machine described has rolls measuring 3 
inches diameter and is practical for wire up to ^-inch 
diameter, with a capacity of No. 22 gauge iron and lighter 
(U. S. Standard). The manufacturer offers larger and 
heavier wiring machines intended for heavy work and 
unusually large size wire, hand or power operated ; and 
in such machines the rolls are interchangeable for per- 
forming the operations of wiring or turning on the same 
machine. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



87 



Burring Machines. — While a little practice will pro- 
duce very satisfactory results and make good wiring pos- 
sible with the use of the wiring and turning machines, as 
already described, the burring machine (Figure 47) is 
more difficult to operate, and any attempt to use the 
burring machine without a teacher would result in a 
waste of time and not a little spoiled work. A knack is 




Figure 47. — Burring Machine. 

required for holding the work in proper position, and 
after this is learned a proper and uniform speed is neces- 
sary to produce an edge or flange without buckling. See 
Figures 172-177. 

The burring machine is used for creasing, edging rims 
of covers for pails, boilers, etc., and preparing circular 
edges of bottoms and bodies of vessels for double seaming. 
In preparing vessels for double seaming, a burr is first 
turned at a right angle on the body of the vessel (see 
Figure 48) ; then one of nearly the same width is turned 



88 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



beyond a right angle around the edge of the bottom. The 
body is sprung into the last named burr. The vessel is 



j 



L 



J 



L 



Figure 48. — Three Successive Operations for Double Seaming ; also a 
Bottom Flange, Turned on the Burring Machine^ 



Crank Screw 

Upper Setting 
Down Roll 
and Gear 



hand Crcrnk 




Lower Setting 
Down Roll and Gqar 



Tenaion Spring 



Figure 49. — Setting Down Machine. 

then ready for setting down (see Figure 48), using the 
setting down machines, Figures 49, 52. To turn the burr 
on the body of the work is not very difficult, but to turn 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



89 



an even burr on the bottom without crimping the burr or 
warping the bottom requires both teaching and practice. 

The burring machine will also turn flanges on bottoms 
or discs, as shown in Figure 48. 

The machine described has a working capacity of No. 
22 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard), and is man- 
ufactured in a small size with rolls iy 2 inches diameter. 
With the small machine the widest flange or burr that can 
be turned is T Vinch. The larger machine has rolls meas- 
uring 2% inches diameter and the widest flange or burr 



A«S? 



5>A B< 



B 



Figure 50. — Edge Turned by Bur- 
ring Machine. 



Figure 51. — Edges Closed on Set- 
ting Down Machine. 



that can be turned is 14-inch. According to special 
requirements, heavier machines of different construction 
are manufactured for burring or flanging very heavy 
material, with small or wide flanges as may be preferred. 

Setting Down Machines. — The setting down machine, 
Figure 49, is used to close the seams left by the burring 
machine (see Figure 48), preparatory to double seaming; 
and if the work on the burring machine has been well 
done that of setting down is not hard to learn. 

The vessel is held bottom upward and the edge A, Fig- 
ure 50, of the bottom run between two rolls, when the 
corresponding edges are pressed or closed tight ready for 
double seaming as shown at B, Figure 51. The setting 
down machine, Figure 49, is more generally used on tin- 



90 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



ware having seams % and T Vineh, and where a quantity 
of the same kind of work is to be set down. 

Figure 52 shows a setting down machine intended for 
the same work as the machine shown in Figure 49, but in 
this machine the inclined position of both the upper and 
lower rolls or faces allows the work to be held bottom up 
or down and the seam to be started inward during the 
setting down operation, thus facilitating the operation of 
double seaming (see Figure 67 at B). Where seams are 



Upper 

Settinq Down 
Roll 3 



Crank Screw 

Crank Screw Stud 

Roll Adjusting 
Clasp Nut 

Gears 

tlandCrank 

Lower 

Settinq Down 
Roll a 

Idler Roll Gauge 

Figure 52. — Setting Down Machine with Inclinable Rolls. 




to be closed in other work besides cans, tanks, etc., the 
construction of the setting down machine, Figure 52, 
offers a very practical means for general seam closing. 
It is fitted with adjustable idler roller gauges that guide 
the work through the rolls, making for more accurate seam 
closing. 

The setting down machine described is made in two 
sizes, No. 24 gauge iron and lighter capacity (U. S. Stand- 
ard) for seams up to %-inch, and No. 18 gauge iron and 
lighter for seams up to %-inch. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



91 



Combination Machines. — A heavy-duty combination 
turning and wiring machine is shown in Figure 53. This 
machine has a capacity for working No. 16 gauge iron 
and lighter (U. S. Standard), and may be used with wire 
as large as T 5 ¥ -inch diameter and as small as , %-inch 
diameter. It is back geared and the ratio of gearing is 



Turning Rolls 



Roll Depressing 
hand Wheel 



bnnect/ng Gears 



Hand Crank 




BackGears 



1 Wiring Roll Gauge 



Figure 53. — Heavy Turning and Wiring Machine. 



4 to 1. It has a pulley for power drive, and a hand crank 
fitted to the pulley shaft, which permits the operation of 
the machine with a belt or by hand. 

The wiring and turning rolls fitted to this machine 
measure only 2y 2 inches diameter, offering a very prac- 
tical means for the wiring of flat sheets irregular in 



92 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



shape, such as mudguards, etc. It is suitable for a variety 
of operations where the work must be perfected with 
rolls, and when special rolls are fitted it covers a wide 
field of shaping and forming usefulness. 

The machine illustrated in Figure 54 is a combination 
slitting, crimping and beading machine. "When the work 



Gears and Pinion Enclosed 
Clutch 



Hand 
Crank 




Gouge 
Reinforcing Gamp 
Ogee Beading Roll; 



Guide Rest 

Crimping 
Rolls" 1 



Clutch Treadle Hodond Spring 



Figure 54. — Combination Slitting, Crimping and Beading Machine. 



is not out of proportion to the machine's capacity, wiring 
rolls and turning rolls are sometimes fitted. The frame is 
of one piece, compact in construction, and occupies a 
minimum amount of bench room. Its limited capacity is 
No. 16 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). It has 
a depth of throat of 11 inches, is driven with a belt from 
a line shaft, and has a friction clutch operated by means 
of a foot treadle and spring, affording the operator full 
control of the machine as well as the work in progress. A 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



93 



description of the friction clutch attachment is given 
under Figure 65. 

When so desired, this combination machine can W 
arranged to run with a direct motor ; and where power is 
not available, it is arranged with a crank for hand drive. 

Bench Machine Standards. — The illustrations, Figures 
55, 56, show the standards used in connection with the 
bench machines already described. The machine stand- 
ard is fastened securely to the workshop bench by means 
of a screw, button, and hand lever. The horn shown on 





Figure 55. — Wiring Machine 
Standard. 



Figure 56. — Regular Machine 
Standard. 



the wiring machine standard in Figure 55, is very handy 
in preparing work for wiring, as described under Figure 
45. 

Revolving Standard. — The revolving machine standard 
shown in Figure 57 will hold eight of any regular bench 
machines used for perfecting various sheet metal working 
operations ; and with the use of this revolving standard a 
separate standard for each machine, like those in Figures 
55 and 56, is not necessary. 



94 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The revolving turret marked 2 holds four machines. 
Four operations can be completed without changing posi- 
tions and the four machines set in this turret are always 
ready for action. The standard is designed with ample 
room for accommodating from one to four operators. 
The hand lever 3 holds the revolving turret in a fixed 
stationary position when so required. The machine 
holders marked d are adjustable ; they raise, lower, and 




Figure 57. — Revolving Machine Standard. 

revolve to suit the operating convenience of the short or 
tall operator, as well as the work in progress. 

The lower stationary turret marked 5 holds four addi- 
tional machines for quickly interchanging with any 
machine set in the upper revolving turret. This lower 
turret also provides for a handy shelf, holding oil can, 
tools, etc. The brackets marked 1 provide a handy rack 
for face wrenches, and additional rolls, making "a place 
for everything and everything in its place. ' ' 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



95 



The practice of taking down and putting up machines 
many times a day, and throwing them under the bench 
when it is desired to utilize bench room for some other 
purpose, only to find some part of the machine broken 
when its use is most required, is a condition in the average 
shop which this revolving machine standard entirely 
eliminates. The standard takes up a floor space of only 



Crank Screw 



Crank 
Screw 
STud 



Set Screw 
for Stud 

PinionSTud 

Jland^rank 
and Pinion 




Triple Bead 
Rolls ' 



Large Gear 
Standard 



Ogee bead Rolls 

Figure 58. — Beading Machine. 

30 inches in diameter, and has been approved by veteran 
sheet metal workers as a modern and improved method 
of bench machine operation. 



BEADING AND CRIMPING MACHINES 

The beading or swaging machine is used for making 
depressions in iron, stiffening and ornamenting automo- 
bile mudguards, pipe, the bodies of vessels, and such 
work, and is very simple to operate. Several pairs of 



96 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



rolls of suitable designs usually accompany the machine, 
The rolls furnished with the beading machine shown in 
Figure 58 are of three kinds; namely, single bead, ogee 
bead, and triple bead. According to the kind of work, 
the design of bead that will show up on the work most 
attractively is selected and the work to be beaded is placed 
in the machine between the rolls, pressing the edge of 
the work against the gauge. The proper location for the 
bead in the work being secured, the upper roll is depressed 
by turning the crank screw. Turning the hand crank 



Crank Screw 
Crank Screw Stud 

Single bead 
Rolls 



Gouge 

Oqee Bead 
Rolls" 




Adjusting 
Clasp Nut 

hand Crank 



Triple Coffee Pot J J ^Standard 

Bead Rolls / _ , D . 

/ Triple Bead 

Rolls 

Figure 59. — Light Beading Machine. 



Connecting Gears 



with the right hand and guiding the work with the left 
hand, the work revolves around the rolls, completing an 
impression in the metal to conform with the design in the 
beading rolls used, thus ornamenting and reinforcing the 1 
body of the work. 

The beading machine illustrated in Figure 58 is manu- 
factured in two sizes, having a depth of throat 12 inches 
and 6% inches respectively, and heavy enough to bead oi 
swage iron of No. 20 gauge and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard). 

Figure 59 shows a beading machine of light capacity 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 97 

No. 26 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard), made in 
two sizes, with a depth of throat of 5y 2 inches and 4 
inches respectively. Four pairs of beading rolls, with an 
additional pair of rolls with the smaller machine having 
the 4-inch throat, complete the roll equipment furnished. 
This type of beading machine is used very extensively by 




Figure 60. — Heavy Beading Machine. 

the tinware manufacturer and in the shop of the sheet 
metal worker where the work to be beaded or swaged is 
light and of a uniform kind. 

Heavy Duty Beading. — Figure 60 shows a beading 
machine suitable where a large heavy-duty machine is 
required. This machine has a depth of throat of lO^ 
inches, the rolls measuring 4 T 7 6 inches in diameter; and 



98 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



is back geared, with a ratio of gearing 4% to 1. It is 
claimed that it will make impressions in sheet iron No. 
14 gauge and lighter (U. S. Standard). When arranged 
for power drive, the shafts are extended and tight and 
loose pulleys are fitted. 

A beading machine of this capacity is very much used 
in shops where furnace casings, large tanks, and such 



Crank Screw- 
Crank Screw 
Stud 

Beadinq 
Rolls J 



Pinion Stud /-Set Screw for Stud 



Hand Crank 
Pinion fnclosed 




Large 
Driving Gear 



for Direct Drive Tit Hand Crank Here 



Figure 61. — Crimping and Beading Machine. 



parts as go into ventilating systems must be reinforced 
through making a series of impressions in the iron, for 
which use the beading machine is intended. Turning and 
wiring rolls are sometimes used on this machine where the 
wire and cylinder are large and the material heavy, spe- 
cial alterations making it adaptable for a wide range of 
work. 

Crimping and Beading. — A great deal of descriptive 
detail is not necessary in connection with the crimping 
and beading machine, Figure 61, after it is explained 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 99 

that the crimp and bead so much in evidence on the edge 
of the common stove pipe are made with this machine (see 
Figure 62). Crimping and beading machines are intended 
to facilitate the making and putting together of sheet iron 
pipe of different diameters, by contracting the edge of 
the pipe so that one joint of pipe will enter another. In 
putting together the pipe the ogee bead next to. the crimp 
prevents the joints slipping beyond the impression made 
with the beading rolls. 

The crimping and beading machine is easy to operate. 
The joint of pipe to be crimped is laid over the lower 




Figure 62. — Showing Crimp and Bead Made with Crimping 
and Beading Machine. 

rolls, pressing one edge of the pipe against the gauge. By 
means of a crank screw a depression of the upper crimp- 
ing and beading rolls is made, and turning the hand crank 
with the right hand, guiding the work with the left hand, 
the pipe in the machine revolves around the rolls, making 
an impression around the edge of the pipe called crimp 
and bead. 

In the machine illustrated a very practical feature is 
offered in the arrangement of the driving gears. Two 
speeds are provided for ; back geared when using heavy 
material, and direct drive when the lighter gauges of 
materials are used. The driving gears at the crank end 
can be removed and the machine converted instantly into 
a direct-acting crimper by attaching the crank to the 
lower shaft. The wedge between the rear bearings in the 
frame provides an adjustment for regulating the relative 
depth of crimp and bead. This wedge is adjusted by 



100 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



wing nuts in the front and back of the frame. By turning 
these wing nuts the upper shaft can be tipped as desired, 
making a deep crimp and shallow bead, or shallow crimp 
and deep bead. With the regular equipment, as furnished 
with the crimping and beading machine, blank collars 
are included and may be substituted in place of beading 
rolls where crimping alone is desired. 

Cornice Maker's Crimper. — The crimping machine 
illustrated in Figure 63, commonly known as the cornice 
maker's crimper, is practically the same as the crimping 




Figure 63. — Crimping Machine. 

machine shown in Figure 61, but in this machine the 
beading rolls are not used and the crimping rolls are 
attached to their arbors in a manner that leaves the ends 
or faces of the crimping rolls flat or flush. They are thus 
adapted for crimping close up to a bend or angle as in 
cornice work, etc., and are constructed for crimping only. 
Heavy Crimping and Beading. — Figure 64 shows a 
neavy crimping and beading machine. A similar machine 
is manufactured and constructed for crimping only, with 
the crimping rolls attached to their arbors flush, as 
described under Figure 63. The improvement described 
under Figure 61, consisting of a wedge found between 
the rear bearings in the frame, providing an adjustment 
for regulating the relative depth of crimp and bead, are 
included in the heavy crimping and beading machine, 
Figure 64. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 101 




Figure 64.— Heavy Crimping and Beading Machine— Power Drive. 



102 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



This machine has a ratio of gearing 414 to 1, and will 
make an impression of a crimp and ogee bead in sheet 
metal 18 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). The 
rolls are large, measuring 2|| inches in diameter. A 
friction clutch operated by means of a foot treadle and 
spring affords the operator full control of the machine, 
as well as of the work in progress. A depression of the 
foot treadle starts the machine and when not depressed 




Figure 65. — Friction Clutch Attachment. 

the rolls stop instantaneously. The work is placed in the 
machine over the lower rolls and the upper rolls are 
depressed by turning a crank screw. As the friction 
clutch provides for instantaneous starting and stopping 
of the machine, the operator's hands are left free for 
guiding the work and manipulating the crank screw. The 
machines are manufactured for hand use and to fit on 
the workshop bench where power is not available. 

The Friction Clutch Attachment is a very practical 
device when used with the heavy crimping and beading 
machine, Figure 64, and is often applied to other 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 103 

machines. It is most useful when applied to machines 
performing operations in sheet metal work with the aid of 
rolls cut to various shapes and forms for the duty- 
required of them. This clutch, providing for instantan- 
eous starting and stopping of the machine at the will of 
the operator, prevents much spoiled work. 

FLANGING MACHINES 

The flanging machine is very useful for turning flanges 
of various heights for bottoms that go into the bodies of 
tanks, vessels, etc., and forms a right-angle flange of var- 
ious heights around the circular edge of sheet metal discs. 

The flanging machine shown in Figure 66 has a maxi- 
mum capacity for operating on No. 14 gauge iron and 
lighter (U. S. Standard). It will flange bottoms from 
12 to 50 inches in diameter, and with the proper flanging^ 
rolls a flange can be turned from *4 to %-inch high on 
Nos. 18, 20, and 24 gauge iron ; from 14 to %-inch high 
on No. 16 gauge iron, and from T 7 e to 1*4 inches on No. 
14 gauge iron. 

Round discs to be flanged are centered and held in the 
yoke on the counterbalance swiveled arm. The yoke is 
gradually raised until the flange is turned as far as 
desired, but not to exceed a right angle. The obtainable 
height of the flange depends entirely upon the thickness 
of stock to be used and the expectation as to smoothness 
of flanges, and it is always advisable to state all flanging 
requirements in detail to the manufacturer, in order to 
secure the very best results from a machine. 

Cutting discs and turning rolls for preparing a seat in 
large tank work of heavy material for receiving a wire ; 
wiring rolls for completing the operation of wiring, and 
beading rolls for stiffening and ornamenting the bodies of 
tanks, vessels, furnace casings, etc., are often applied to 
the flanging machine. When these attachments are used,, 
the flanging yoke is removed. 



104 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



DOUBLE SEAMING MACHINES 



A review of the descriptive matter under Burring 
Machine (Figure 47) and Setting Down Machine (Fig- 
ure 49 ) will prove helpful at this time in understanding 



Clamping 
Stud- 



Stud Crank 
TScrew 



Depressing 
(/ Han d Wheel 
frame 



Supporting 
Plate 



Back 
Gear 




Figure 66. — Power Flanging Machine. 



the uses of the double seaming machine. After the set- 
ting down machine has done its work, the flange left by it 
is turned up against the bottom of the vessel, to make both 
the seam and the bottom tight. In repair shops this is 
sometimes done with a mallet over the end of the double 
seaming stake. If much work is to be done, a double 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 105- 

seaming machine will prove a time-saver and will turn 
out better finished work in a fraction of the time that 
would be required with a hand operation. 

The flange, as left and closed dowi} with the setting 
down machine, is illustrated at A, Figure 67. This flange 
at A is turned up against the body of the vessel with the 
double seaming machine, making the seam and bottom 
tight, as shown at C. 

Figure 68 shows the horizontal disc double seaming 
machine, which is made in several sizes for accommodate 



Figure 67. — Work of the Double Seaming Machine. 

ing vessels with a depth up to 36 inches and of various: 
diameters. 

Where this machine is used it is necessary to start the 
seam inward while setting down with the setting down 
machine, as shown at B, Figure 67, thus facilitating the 
operation of double seaming. 

In operating the horizontal disc double seaming 
machine, a disc must be selected of a size nearest to the 
diameter of the vessel to be double seamed. The vessel is. 
placed over the disc and the upright holding the disc, and 
the work over it is brought in line and contact with the 
double seaming roll or face. The flange left as shown in 
Figure 67, at B, is turned up against the body Qf the 
vessel as shown in the same figure at C, through friction 
and pressure of the double seaming roll brought to bear 
on the seam by gradually turning the crank screw while 
the work is revolving. The seam in the work must not 
come in contact too close or too far away from the double 



106 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Crank Screw Stud 

Double Seaming Roll- 
Disc 



Crank Screw 



Seaming Head 



HandCrcink 



Seaminq 
Head 
Support 




Figure 68. — Horizontal Disc Double Seaming Machine. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



107 



seaming roll, the proper setting and adjustment of the 
upright which supports the work being secured through 
trials and experiments. 

This horizontal disc double seaming machine, Figure 
68, will double-seam work of unusually large diameters, 
of material No. 22 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard), and of any depth up to 36 inches. The machine 
is made in smaller sizes and lighter capacities, of differ- 



Front Part 
Upper Roll 



Lower 
Roll 



Rear Port 
Upper Double Seaming Roll 

—Lever 




Gears 
HandCrank 



Tucking Wheel 



Figure 69. — Double Seaming Machine, Moore's Patent. 



ent construction, but in principle they are nearly all the 
same. 

Moore's Patent.— The double seaming machine shown 
in Figure 69, known as "Moore's Patent," is more desir- 
able for general use, as the frequent changing of discs to 
the nearest size of the vessel to be double seamed is 
unnecessary. 

The operation of double seaming is performed with 
this machine in two steps, by engaging two parts of the 
upper roll. The first step throws the seam over part way, 



108 SHEET METAL WORKER'S MANUAL 

as shown in Figure 67 at B, and the second step finishes 
the operation of double seaming as shown in the same 
figure at C. 

The work to be double seamed is placed in the machine 
over the lower roll, and the lever that engages with the 
upper roll is thrown over to the left, which places the rear 
part of the upper double seaming roll in position for the 
first step. A slight depression of the upper roll on the 
work is then effected by means of turning the crank 
screw, revolving the vessel around the rolls by turning 
the hand crank. During this operation the bottom of the 
vessel must be pressed firmly against the face of the lower 
roll. 

The first step in double seaming completed, the upper 
roll is raised and the lever thrown to the right, bringing 
the front part of the upper roll in position for the finish- 
ing operation, which is performed in the same manner as 
just described. 

The double seaming machine, Moore's Patent, has a 
small tucking wheel, which is thrown in position to work 
with rolls for the first step or operation. This wheel tucks 
in the edge of the seam in the vessel and aids in bending 
the seam over. 

Care should be exercised not to depress the upper 
double-seaming roll too hard in the first few revolutions 
of the rolls, but allow pressure of the, double seaming rolls 
on the seam to bear gradually. 

The double seaming machine described will operate on 
No. 26 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Standard). The 
large machine, having a throat of 15% inches, will double 
seam work 15% inches deep, 4% inches diameter and 
larger. The small machine, with a throat of 10 inches, 
will double seam work 10 inches deep, 3 inches diameter 
and larger. 

Machines of the same type are manufactured for power 
drive and heavy capacity. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 109' 

ELBOW MACHINERY 

In making a pipe elbow the blank is first cut from pat- 
tern, and if the elbow is to have a lock seam in the throat, 
the longitudinal edges of the blank are edged prepara- 
tory to grooving or seam closing on the folding machine. 
The blank with the lock edges is then formed and rolled 




Figure 70. — Curved Elbow Shears. 

into a cylinder with the forming machine, and the corre- 
sponding edges are locked together and the seam made 
tight with the grooving machine. In the case of the riv- 
eted elbow it is held together with rivets. 

In some shops the elbow blank is cut from pattern with 
the hand snip or the bench shears, but in a shop where 
many of the same kind of elbows are manufactured a more 



110 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



rapid means of cutting elbow blanks is used, namely, a 
press and dies, or the curved shears. 

Curved Elbow Shears. — This machine (Figure 70) 
resembles the squaring shears (Figure 1) and is oper- 
ated in the same manner, but in place of having straight 
cutting blades, curved blades and blocks are fitted. Ac- 
cording to the blades used the curved shears will cut elbow 
blanks for 2, 3, and 4-piece elbows, with a range of diame- 
ters 2, 2%, 3, 3%, 4, 4i/ 2 , 5, 5%, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, and 
16 inches, of 90 degrees or special angles, with a seam in 




Figure 71. — Bench Elbow Edging Machine. 



the throat or on the side of the elbow. The capacity of the 
curved shears is No. 22 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 
Standard). 

Elbow Edging.— For making the impression or crease 
in the circular edge of the elbow, required to lock the cor- 
responding sections together, the elbow edging machine 
shown in Figure 71 is used. 

The different makers of elbows have their preferences 
as to the kind of seam that makes for the best adjustable 
or tight joint elbow. The elbow edging rolls shown in 
Figure 73, and marked 1, are the ones most commonly 
used. With this elbow edging machine, they are inter- 
changeable. 

Figure 71 at A shows the position of an elbow section 
when turning the edge. At B the illustration shows how 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



111 



the crease is made to enter the corresponding section. The 
edge and the crease are made with the same rolls, design 



Roll Depressing Lever 



Pulleys 




Hand 
Crank 



Cast Iron 
Plate 



Back Gear 
Connecting Geard 

Floor Standard 



Turn buckle- 
Treadle 
ConnectmQ 
Rods 



Toot Treadle 



Figure 72. — Power Elbow Edging Machine. 

No. 1, Figure 73, making an elbow with a tight or ad- 
justable joint. If any other design of edge is preferred, 



112 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the elbow edging rolls are used in pairs to conform with 
the design of seam preferred. 

The bench elbow edging machine (Figure 71) is used 
•extensively in the small shop, and proves very useful 
when it is desired to make an elbow in special size and 
where only a few elbows are required. The elbow edging 
rolls in this machine measure 2% inches diameter, and 
its capacity is No. 24 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard). 

Power Elbow Edging Machine. — The elbow manufac- 
turer making elbows in very large quantities must depend 
upon a power machine for producing with speed and 
accuracy perfect edges on each and every elbow section. 
The power elbow edging machine designed for meeting 
these requirements is illustrated in Figure 72. 

Eigidity of the machine while in operation is an essen- 
tial faetor in perfect elbow edging. The machine shown 
complies with this requirement, as the frame is attached 
securely to a heavy cast-iron plate and both the machine 
and its plate are fitted to a heavy iron floor standard. 
An apron gauge of unusual width, machined with a slight 
«eurvature in its face, guides the edge of the elbow through 
the rolls with extreme accuracy. 

The depression of the upper roll is secured by means of 
a foot treadle and spring, leaving the operator's hands 
free for guiding the elbow through the rolls. According 
to the requirements of the elbow manufacturer, elbow 
edging rolls as shown in Figure 73 are used and inter- 
change with this machine. The rolls used, measuring Zy± 
inches in diameter, travel faster and finish, an edge in 
elbows of large sizes in less time than it would take with 
rolls of smaller diameter. 

With the proper rolls and gauges, this machine can be 
used as a turning, wiring, or burring machine. "Where 
power is not available, it is arranged for hand use, and 
when so arranged the machine fits into a standard which 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



113 



ij attaches to the shop bench. The illustration shows this 
(machine fitted with tight and loose pulleys, but when so 
preferred it can be arranged with the friction clutch at- 
tachment shown in Figure 65. When the friction clutch 
attachment is used, the pressure on the rolls is secured 
i with a crank screw instead of a foot treadle attachment. 
The capacity of the machine is No. 20 gauge iron and 
lighter (U. S. Standard). 

Elbow Edging Bolls.— The elbow edging rolls shown 
in Figure 73 are interchangeable for use with the elbow 
edging machines shown in Figures 71 and 72. 



A- 




1 2 3 4 5 

Figure 73.— Elbow Edging Rolls of Various Types. 

Rolls of the type marked 1 produce a V-shaped edge 
and a right-angle edge when the edge in the elbow is 
formed as described under Figure 71. 

Eolls like No. 2 are desirable for edging inside and out- 
side elbow sections of riveted elbows with tight or loose 

joint. 

Rolls like Nos. 3 and 4 are preferable for elbows with 
riveted or grooved seams and when the joint is to be 

loose. „ 

Rolls like No. 5 can be used for the outer edge ot 

riveted or grooved elbows ; and when using these rolls the 

inner edge is turned on the regular burring machine or 

with rolls of design No. 6. 

Elbow Seam Closing .—When sections of elbows are 



114 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



properly edged and put together, the circular seam must 
be closed, in order to prevent the elbows from breaking 
apart at their joints through handling. This is done 
either by means of the elbow seam closing machine or by 
hand with a mallet over a bench stake. 

Figure 74 shows an elbow seam closing machine in- 
tended for closing the circular seams of pieced elbows 
having tight or loose joints. The rolls in the elbow seam 



Female Se&m 



Lever 




Figure 74. — Elbow Seam Closing Machine. 

closing machine are shaped to correspond to the seam 
in the elbow; and in putting the elbow together in sec- 
tions the elbow to be closed fits over the lower roll, the 
seam in the elbow resting over a bead cut in the roll. The 
upper female roll is depressed by means of a foot treadle 
and spring, starting the elbow through the rolls by pres- 
sure of the upper roll on the seam. The elbow then re- 
volves around the rolls, making the seam tight. Elbow 
seam closing machines are manufactured with a maximum 
capacity of Nos. 26 and 24 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



115 



Standard), suitable for elbows 4 to 7 inches diameter on 
the lighter machine and 8 to 12 inches diameter on the 
! heavier machine. 

PUNCHING MACHINES 

Punching machines, as extensively used by the sheet 
metal worker, are so simple in their operation that a 
lengthy description is unnecessary. They are made in a 



-Eccentric 




Figure 75. — Punching Machine. 

wide variety of sizes and capacities, but for general use 
the deep throat punching machine is preferable 

Figure 75 shows a lever punch having a depth ot 
throat of 15 inches. It will punch a hole %, & or % inch 
in diameter, in the center of a 30-inch sheet. It has a 
capacity for punching as heavy as No. 12 gauge iron 
(U S. Standard) and when reinforced by the stay bolts 



116 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

in the frame of the machine it will punch No. 9 gauge iron 
and lighter. 

A heavier and larger punch of similar design is made 
for punching a %-inch hole in %-inch iron ; and by the 
use of special punches in the heavier machine larger 
holes can be punched, from y 2 to 1*4 inches in diameter, 
in sheet iron ranging in thickness from y% to *4 inch. 

■ Figure 76 shows a useful combined shears and punch, 
having a depth of punching gap of 2% inches. This ma- 



Hand Lever 




■Upper Cutting Blade 
Frame 9 V^- Lower Cutting Blade 

Figure 76. — Combined Shears and Punch. 

chine will center sheets 5y 2 inches wide and will punch a 
%> A? %> t 5 6> or %-inch hole in iron ^ inch thick. The 
cutting blade is 4% inches in length and will cut sheet 
iron y s inch thick and narrow bars <£$ and % inch. 

Combined shears and punches somewhat different in 
construction are also built for heavy duty, with a punch- 
ing capacity as great as %-inch hole in %-inch iron, and 
will cut sheet iron No. 8 gauge (U. S. Standard) and bar 
iron ^4x1%, %x%, or y 2 inch square. 

The notching machine, Figure 77, is constructed for 
notching blanks of pieced sheet metal ware, for cutting 
the corners of square pans, hinged notches of boxes, and 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 



117 



similar work. The dies are made in sections, so that they 
may be easily sharpened and reset. The notching machine 
has ample gauging capacity for cutting the corners of 
sheet meal blanks in a wide range of sizes. The sheet 



Gauge 
Clamping Knobs 




_ Pendulum 
Foot Lever 



Figure 77. — Notching Machine. 



metal to be notched is placed in the machine between the 
punch and dies, and by operating the pendulum lever 
with the foot the notch is cut. The regular machine is 
fitted with one set of dies measuring 1x2 inches, and can 
be arranged to receive special dies in sizes up to 2x2 



118 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



inches. The heaviest material that can be used on this 
machine is No. 20 gauge iron and lighter (U. S. Stand- 
ard). 

GUTTER MACHINES 

Gutter beading machines are used for forming a bead 
on the edge of sheet gutter metal and are easily operated. 



KZZ. 



J 



Figure 78. — Gutter with Bead. 



A bead as made on a gutter with the gutter beading ma- 
chine, is shown in Figure 78 at A. 

Adjustable Header. — Figure 79 shows an • adjustable 
gutter header which will form a bead in gutter 30 inches 
in length, and will receive various sized rods for form- 




Jaws 



-5top or Gauge 



•—Hand Wheel 
Set Lever 



Figure 79. — Adjustable Gutter Beader. 

ing a bead % to % inch. After the bead is formed, the 
rod with the sheet of metal and the formed bead can be 
lifted out of the machine and the work slipped from the 
rod. The machine has a gauge or stop on the left-hand 
end, so that after adjusting the jaws and setting the 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 119 

gauge or stop for the size of rod to be used, the jaws can 
be easily opened to remove the work and rod and again 
closed to exactly the same position as when the bead was 
formed. This enables the operator to form any number 
of beads of exactly the same size. The jaws are adjusted 
by a hand wheel with rack and pinion, which adjusts both 
ends of the movable jaw. The sheet of metal to be formed 
into a gutter bead is inserted in a slot milled in the rod ; 
and by means of a hand crank the material winds around 
the rod, completing the bead. 

Plain Beader. — The plain gutter beading machine, Fig- 
ure 80, is manufactured in sizes 20, 30, 42, and 60 inches 
in length. It is intended for the same work as the ad- 




Figure 80. — Plain Gutter Beading Machine. 

justable gutter beader (Figure 79), but is not adjustable 
and each machine will receive only one size of rod, thus 
making a bead of one size only. Plain headers are built 
with a range of rod diameters from % to 1 inch, accord- 
ing to the length of the machine. 

ROOFING AND GUTTER TONGS 

Various styles of roofing and gutter tongs are shown 
in Figure 81. 

Stow's improved tongs (1) are adjustable for turning 
five different widths of locks, namely, %, %, 1, l 1 /^, and 
iy 2 inch. 

Reese 's patent adjustable gauge tongs {2) will turn 
any size lock from % to 3 inches. 



120 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The gutter tongs (3) have a depth of jaws of 14 inches. 
Clamp tongs (4) have a depth of jaws of 3 inches. 







Figure 81. — Roofing, Gutter Tongs and Squeezing Tongs. 



The squeezing tongs (5) are used in the application of 
roll and cap roofing with protected cleats. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 121 

The regular roofing tongs (6) will turn one size lock 
only and are made in the following range of sizes : %, %, 

1, 1%, W2, 13 /4 and 2 inches. 

Figure 82 shows a deep throat roofing tongs, with an 




Figure 82. — Deep Throat Roofing Tongs. 

adjustable gauge adapted for turning any edge from y 2 
to 10% inches. 

STANDING SEAM ROOFING 

Continuous roll tin roofing is usually prepared from 
tin plate 20x28 inches for standing seam roofing. After 
the sheets are edged the cross lock seamer shown in Figure 
83 is used for fastening the tin plates together and closing 
a single or double lock. As the seams are closed a reel 
winds the sheet into a roll ready to lay on the roof. 

The roll of tin being properly placed on the roof, it is 
edged with the Stow ? s or regular roofing tongs, as shown 
in Figure 84. 

Roofing Double S earners. — Having the edges turned 
with the roofing tongs, as shown in Figure 84, the roofing 
double seamers, Figure 85, are then used. 

The double seamers are used in sets of two pairs and 
form a double seam in standing seam roofing. They are 
termed common gauge seamers and wide gauge seamers. 
The common gauge seamers follow the 1 and 1 14-inch 



122 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



regular roofing tongs. With the roofing tongs the con- 
tinuous roll roofing, as laid out on the roof flat, is turned 
up as already stated and illustrated in Figure 84. 




Figure 83. — Burritt's Patent Cross Lock Seamer. 

The first pair of common gauge seamers start the seam 
in operations shown in Figures 86 and 87. 



Figure 84. — Roofing Edges Turned, Ready for Double Seam. 

For the finishing operation the second pair of roofing 
double seamers in the set are used, completing the seam 
in operations shown in Figures 88 and 89, and thus finish- 
ing a standing seam % inch high. 



SHEZST METAL WORKING MACHINERY 123 

The wide gauge roofing double seamers, which follow 
the l 1 /^ and 1^-inch regular roofing tongs, are used the 




Figure 85. — Burritt's Patent Roofing Double Seamers. 

same as the common gauge seamers, but finish a standing 
seam 1 inch high. 



124 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The finished standing seam joint is illustrated in Fig- 
ure 90, which also shows the method of attaching the tin 



1 



Figure 86. — First Operation in 
Double Seaming. 



Fig, 87. — Second Operation. 



1 



Figure 88. — Third Operation. 



5 

Figure 89. — Completing the Seam. 



roof to the roofing boards by means of the cleat. This 
cleat is so arranged that the nail heads do not come in 
contact with the tin roof itself. Note how the various 



^Nciils Engage Lower Fold of 




Cleat Shown 
Shaded Croas 
and Dotted L 



Figure 90. — Standing Seam Roofing Joint and Cleat. 

bends and interlocking produce an absolutely watertight 
joint and make a tin roof with standing seams practically 
a one-piece roof. 



SHEET METAL WORKING MACHINERY 125 

The hand roofing double seamers serve the same pur- 
pose as the roofing double seamers, Figure 85, and in 




Figure 91. — Hand Roofing Double Seamers. 



Noils Engage Lower 
Fold of Cleat 




Cleat Shown by 

Shaded Cross Sect ion 
ond Dotted Lines. 



Figure 92. — Flat Seam Roofing Joint and Fastening. 




Figure 93.^ — Adjustable Roofing Folder. 

operation follow the regular roofing tongs ; but the seams 
are perfected by hand with a mallet against both sides of 



126 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

their flat surfaces. The hand seamers are also used in 
sets of two pairs. See Figure 91. 

FLAT SEAM ROOFING 

Figure 92 shows the method of making the flat seam 
roofing joint and of fastening the tin to the roofing boards. 
Note how the cleat interlocks permanently with the seam 
and how the nail heads holding the cleats to the boards 



a 



q 



© ® © 




Figure 94. — Common Roofing Folder. 

are prevented from coming in contact with the tin itself. 
The edges are shown trimmed flush, in order to demon- 
strate that a flat seam tin roof is practically a one-piece 
roof; that all seams are absolutely watertight. 

Roofing Folders. — For flat seam roofing the tin plate 
is edged with the wood roofing folder. 

Figure 93 illustrates the adjustable wood roofing folder, 
having an adjustable gauge for forming locks T 3 ^ to % 
inch, and manufactured in 20 and 30-inch lengths. 

Figure 94 illustrates the common roofing folder, manu- 
factured in lengths of 14, 20, 28, and 30 inches, and form- 
ing locks of one size only, namely, j% inch. 



Ill 

SHEET METAL WOEKING TOOLS 



BENCH STAKES 



Sheet metal is shaped principally by being bent over 
anvils of peculiar forms, known as stakes. These fit into 




£7 O 

£7 



°+ C 



d 



Figure 95. — 'Bench Plate for Holding Stakes. 

holes cut in the work bench ; and to save wear of the bench 
and hold the stakes rigid the bench plate, Figure 95, is 
used. 

A detailed description of each stake will not be given, 




Figure 96. — Revolving Bench Plate for Holding Stakes. 

as by reference to the illustrations, the uses of the tools 
may in most cases be inferred. 

127 



128 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The bench plate shown in Figure 96 will prove verj 
handy where only a few small stakes are used and I 
made in size 8%x8%". This plate is held securely tc 
the bench with a clamp and handle and has a circulai 
swivel plate in which the stakes fit. 

Figure 97 shows a stake holder and the different tooh 
capable of being used with it. This holder enables th( 




Figure 97. — Stake Holder with Complete Set of Stakes. 



workman to use the stakes shown, in any position besl 
suited to the work in hand, without mutilating the bench, 
One stake may be substituted for another with ease. 

No. 1 is the stake holder. Nos. 2 and 9 show a "beak- 
horn" stake in two pieces; No. 10 is a blowhorn stake: 
No. 6 a creasing stake with horn ; No. 3 a double seaming 
stake ; Nos. 7 and 8 a conductor stake in two pieces ; No. 
a candle-mold stake ; No. 5 a needle-case stake. 

Further illustrations of bench stakes are given in Fig- 
ures 98, 99, and 100. 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



129» 



HAND TOOLS 

Sheet metal is scribed with the scratch awl, Figure 101 T 
and cut to the size of the pattern as required by means 
of shears. 

Hand shears come in a variety of shapes. A bench 
shears is shown in Figure 102. 




Figure 98. — Bench Stakes. 
1, Beakhorn Stake; 2, Candle Mold Stake; 3, Blowhorn Stake; 4 
Creasing Stake ; 5, Needle Case Stake ; 6, Square Stake. 

Hand shears, or snips, as shown in Figures 103-104, are 
made with straight and curved blades. The straight blade 
shears, Figure 103, are used for general straight cutting ; 
the shears shown in Figure 104, known as the circular 
snip, being made specially for cutting circles. 



:T30 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The Original Hand Snip. — Tapered blades for fin< 
work, laid steel, sharp cutting edges, sloping shoulders 
ito Jsaep metal from curling, joints correctly centered tc 



c: 



D 






u 

6 8 

Figure 99. — Bench Stakes (Continued). 

1, Double Seaming Stake ; 2, Creasing Stake, with Horn ; 3, Copner 
smith's Square Stake ; 4, Hatchet Stake ; 5, Bottom Stake ; 6, Batl 
Tub Stake ; 7, Bevel Edge Square Stake ; 8, Round Head Stake. 



avoid lost leverage, accurate balance and hang to preven 
tired wrists ; and the bows so made as to fit the hand with 
out injury in cutting — all these are important feature; 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



131 



to have in mind when selecting a pair of hand snips. 
The Pexto snip embodies these features. The original 



^ ^ 



TV 




^WW 




?? 



u 



Figure 100. — Bench Stakes (Continued). 

1, Hollow Mandrel Stake ; 2, Mandrel Stake ; 3, Double Seaming 
Stake, with Four Heads, A, B, C, D ; 4, Conductor Stake ; 5, Tea Kettle 
Stake with Four Heads. 

pattern was made in 1819 and since that time this snip, 
known to the sheet metal worker the country over as 




Figure 101. — Scratch Awl. 



"P. S. & W. Co.'s 1819 Original," has made the makers 
the foremost manufacturers of hand shears in the indus- 
try. 



132 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Figure 105 shows a snip with the blade so shaped as to 
easily cut circles, scrolls, etc., while adapted to the same 
class of work as the regular snip. The jaws are beveled, 
with straight cutting edges which allow the material to 




Figure 102. — Bench Shears. 

pass freely when cutting curves or changing the direction 
of the cut. 

Figure 106 shows a snip especially adapted for cornice 
and tin work. They are made to cut circles, scrolls, etc., 




Figure 103. — 1819 Original Pexto Straight Snip. 

veTy easily, but they are equally well adapted for regular 
snip work. The blades are rounding and sharp pointed 
and can be used for very delicate work. 

Scroll and Circular Snip. — A useful combination scroll 




Figure 104. — 1819 Original Circular Snip. 

and circular snip is shown in Figure 107. With the aid 
of this snip, work can be cut on a straight line ; and it will 
<jut circles or the radii of a circle in very much smaller 
dimensions than it is possible to cut with any other snip. 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



133 



The narrow blades, having extremely sharp points, will 
cut on the inside as well as on the outside of a sheet of 




Figure 105. — Hercules Combination Snip* 




=o 



Figure 106. — Lyon Snip. 




Figure 107. — Hawk's Bill Combination Scroll and Circular Snip. 



metal. The blades are hawk-billed in shape and have a 
peculiar clearance bevel between the cutting edges which 



134 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 





(S\ 



Figure 108 — Double Cutting Shears with Pipe Crimper. 
1, Crimped with Attachment Fitted to Shears ; 2, Old Method. 



3D 




OKD 

2 



Figure 109. — Double Cutting Shears, Pocket Size. 




Figure 110. — Raising Hammers. 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



135^ 



permits the blades easily to turn a sharp corner or work 
around a small curve without buckling. The blades being: 




Figure 111. — Setting Hammer. 



Figure 112. — Riveting Hammer.. 



unusually narrow and ground to an extreme narrowness 
at the points, they are highly valuable for cutting open- 



12 3 + 5 

Figure 113. — Chisels and Punches. 

1. Wire Chisel ; 2, Lantern Chisel ; 3, 4, Solid Punches ; 5, Prick: 
Punch. 



ings in pipe or cylinders of every description, for furnace 
jackets, thimbles, tee joints, etc. They are especially 



Figure 114. — Hollow Punch. 



adapted for cornice-work practice in tight places, where 
the regular hand snip proves cumbersome. 



136 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

The double cutting shears shown in Figure 108 com- 
bined with a pipe crimper are well known. The blade is 
pointed and readily inserted in the metal at the point 
desired to begin the cutting. The crimping attachment 
is designed for crimping any kind of light sheet metal, 




Figure 115. — Rivet Set. 

round or square. The principal advantages of these 
shears will be found in their pipe-cutting features, but 
they are well adapted for cutting off the bottoms of pails, 
pans, etc., and are suitable for cutting square work. 

Figure 109 shows a double cutting shears of a smaller 
size, intended for light work and without the crimping 
attachment. The results of the old and new methods of 
-cutting are shown in Figure 109 at 1 and 2 respectively. 




Figure 116. — Hand Groover. 

Raising hammers of various sizes are shown in Figure 
110. 

A setting hammer is shown in Figure 111 and a rivet- 
ing hammer in Figure 112, made in a variety of sizes, 
with faces measuring from % to 1% inches inclusive. 

A wire chisel and a lantern chisel, with a set of solid 
and prick punches, is shown in Figure 113. 

Hollow Punch. — Figure 114 shows a hollow punch, for 
cutting circular holes out of sheet metal. To avoid the 
chipping of edges with the hollow punch, the sheet metal 
to be punched should be placed over a block of lead. Hoi- 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



137 



low punches are made regularly in a variety of sizes, 
from 14 to 3y 2 inches inclusive, and larger sizes are made 
specially to order. 

The rivet set so much used by the sheet metal worker 




Z> 



Figure 117. — Tinners' Hickory Mallet. 

is shown in Figure 115. It is made in standard sizes and 
measurements as follows : 

Size ; 00 1 2 

Size of Hole ins. 5/16 9/32 1/64 .2130 

Drill ga. No. 5/16 9/32 15/64 3 

For Iron Rivets.. lbs. 14 10-12 7-8 6 

Cop'r " Nos. 5 6 7 

" Cop'r " ..Ins. % 7/32 3/16 

A standard grooving tool is shown in Figure 116, made 
in numbers and dimensions as follows : 



3 


4 5 


6 


7 


8 


1910 


.1660 .1495 


.1405 


.1285 


.1100 


11 


19 25 


28 


30 


35 


4-5 


2V 2 -3 l%-2 


1% 


1-1% 


10-12 


8 


9 10 


12 


13 


14 


5/32 


9/64 y 8 


7/64 


3/32 


3/32 



Number 

Weight lbs. 

Size of Groove, Ins. 



0000 000 00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

1/10 1/10 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/6 7/8 7/8 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 
19/32 17/32 7/16 3/8 11/32 5/16 9/32 7/32 5/32 1/8 7/64 3/32 




Figure 118. — Steel Circumference Rule. 



Figure 117 illustrates the useful tinners ' mallets, which 
are manufactured in various sizes. 

Circumference Rule. — A steel circumference rule that 
will prove invaluable for laying out work in general is 
shown in Figure 118, which is an exact representation so 



138 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



far as shown. The entire length of the rule is 36 inches. 
The upper line is the ordinary rule, graduated by eighths 
of an inch. The lower line shows at a glance the exact 
circumference of any cylinder by simply ascertaining 
the diameter ; that is, a vessel 5 inches in diameter the 
rule indicates to be 15% inches in circumference. The 




Figure 119. — Wire Gauge, English Standard. 



reverse side contains much useful information in large 
plain figures regarding the sizes of sixty different articles, 
such as cans, measures, pails, etc., with straight or flaring 
sides, flat or pitched top, liquid and dry measure in 
quarts, gallons and bushels. First is given the dimen- 
sions for vessels holding 1 to 5 gallons liquid measure; 
second, one-quarter to 2 bushels dry measure ; third, cans 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



139 



with pitched tops 1 to 10 gallons ; fourth, cans with flat 
top 1 to 200 gallons; fifth, vessel holding 1 to 8 quarts 
and y 2 bushel to 3 bushels dry measure. 

Wire Gauge. — A wire and sheet metal gauge, a neces- 
sity in every shop, is shown in Figure 119. The gauge 
shown is English standard and manufactured in two 
sizes ; namely, to 36 and 6 to 36. 




Figure 120. — Single Leg Extension Divider. 




Figure 121. — Compass. 



Dividers. — A divider, or pair of dividers, as specially 
designed for the sheet metal worker, is shown in Figure 
120. They are forged from a high-grade steel scientifi- 
cally tempered. One of the points is movable so that it 
may be lengthened or shortened as required and will 
prove a convenient scratch awl. The extension divider is 
made in sizes from 6 to 10 inches inclusive. 

A compass, made in sizes from 3 to 10 inches inclusive, 
is shown in Figure 121. Figure 122 illustrates a combina- 
tion pliers with wire cutter, made in three sizes ; namely, 
6, 8, and 10 inches. Figure 123 shows the tinners' flat 
nose pliers, and Figure 124 a round nose pliers, made in a 



140 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



variety of sizes from 4 to 8 inches inclusive. A cutting 
nippers for wire cutting is shown in Figure 125. 




Figure 122. — Combination Pliers with Wire Cutter. 




^ 



Figure 123. — Flat Nose Pliers. 




Figure 125. — Cutting Nippers. 
TINNERS y FIREPOTS 

The firepot shown in Figure 126 is a universal favorite 
with the tinner and sheet metal worker. It is lined with 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



141 



firebrick and made in a most substantial manner. The 
draft door is in two sections, which economizes fuel. 

Figure 127 shows a firepot so constructed that the ashes 
fall in a pan beneath the coal and the fire is kept clear 
and the draft good. It is light and may easily be carried 
from place to place at the convenience of the workman. 




Figure 126. — Cast Iron Firepot. Figure 127. — Sheet Iron Firepot. 




Figure 128. — Single Burner Gas Furnace. 



Gas Furnaces. — Figure 128 illustrates a gas furnace for 
heating soldering coppers. It is light in weight, consumes 
but little gas, economizes time, and avoids dust and dirt. 
By regulating the aperture through which the air passes 
so that the flame has a blue appearance, the very hottest 
flame produced by gas can be secured. It will burn either 



142 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



natural or artificial gas. It has a single burner with a 
sheet iron top. 

A brick-lined double burner gas furnace is shown in 
Figure 129. No air blowers being required, this furnace 
is desirable for heating soldering coppers in the shop. It 
is always ready for use and with the proper flow of gas 
will produce a blue hot flame. It will burn either natural 
or artificial gas. 

Soldering Coppers. — Figure 130 shows the ordinary 




Figure 129. — Double Burner Gas Furnace. 
Figure 130. — Square Point Soldering Copper. 



^S=^ 




Figure 131. — Roofing Copper. 



E» 



w 



T> 



Figure 132. — -Bottom Copper. 

soldering copper with square point, and a roofing copper 
with shield and handle is seen in Figure 131. Figure 132 
represents a bottom copper, and a hatchet copper with 
swivel handle is shown in Figure 133. 

A soldering copper handle is shown in Figure 134, and 
two styles of solder scrapers, better known as plumbers' 
scrapers, in Figures 135, 136. A useful roofing scraper is 
shown in Figure 137. 

The sheet metal working tools described in the fore- 



SHEET METAL WORKING TOOLS 



143 




=i 



Figure 133. — Hatchet Copper. 




Figure 134. — Soldering Copper Handle. 




Figure 135. — Plumbers' Scraper. 




Figure 136. — Plumbers' Scraper. 




Figure 137. — Roofing Scraper. 




144 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

going pages are the ones used in sheet metal working 
practice more than any other kinds, and are manufac- 
tured with special attention to their quality, shape, bal- 
ance and hang by the makers of the Pexto line of tools 
and machinery. Hand tools for the sheet metal worker 
are made in a further extensive variety for special pur- 
poses, but those in general use have received due mention. 



IV 

SHEET METAL WOEKING SCHOOL SHOP 
EQUIPMENT 

Following is a complete equipment of sheet metal 
workers' tools and machines suggested for a class of 15 
boys: 

1 Squaring shears, 30-inch. 

1 King and circular shears. 

1 Bar folding machine, 30-inch. 

1 Cornice brake, 48-inch. 

1 Forming machine, slip roll, 2 x 30-inch. 

1 Groover, 30-inch. 

1 Small turning machine. 

1 Wiring machine. 

1 Large burring machine. J (Without regular standards. To 
fit in Holdall revolving machine standard.) 

1 Setting down machine. > 

1 Elbow edging machine. ) (Without standards. To fit in 
Holdall revolving machine standard.) 
Extra pair No. 3 faces for above. 
Extra pair No. 4 faces for above. 

1 Beading machine. ) 

1 Crimping and beading machine. ) (Without regular stand- 
ards. To fit in Holdall revolving machine standard. 

1 Holdall revolving machine standard. 

1 Moore's double seaming machine. 

1 Bench punch. 

1 30-inch gutter beader with %-inch rod. 

1 Mandrel stake, solid. 

1 Mandrel stake, hollow. 

1 Beakhorn stake. 

1 Blowhorn stake. 

1 Double seaming stake. 

1 Needlecase stake. 

1 Hatchet stake, 13-inch, 

1 Hatchet stake, 9-inch. 

1 Bevel edge square stake, 2Y 2 x 4%. 

1 Double seaming stake with 4 heads. 

145 



146 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

1 Bound head stake. 

4 Bench plates, 31 x 8 inches. 
15 Mallets, 2% x 5% inches. 
15 Gas furnaces, double burner. 
15 pairs, 2-pound soldering coppers (1 lb. each.) 
15 pairs, 3-pound soldering coppers (1% lb. each.) 

1 Hand punch. 
15 pairs, snips, straight. 

8 pairs, snips, circular. 

1 pair, bench shears. 
15 Riveting hammers. 
15 Setting hammers. 
15 Plumbers ' scrapers. 

1 Raising hammer. 

2 Cutting nippers. 

1 No. 3 grooving tool. 
1 No. 5 grooving tool. 

1 No. grooving tool. 
8 Size 6, rivet sets. 

8 Size 4, rivet sets. 

2 Size 2, rivet sets. 
15 Prick punches. 

3 No. 8 solid punches. 
3 No. 6 solid punches. 
3 No. 4 solid punches. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 1-inch hollow punch. 

1 l^-inch hollow punch. 

3 %-inch wire chisels. 
15 Scratch awls. 
60 Soldering copper handles. 

1 No. 2 wire gauge. 

1 Steel rule, circumference. 

3 pairs Hawk's bill snips. 

1 Conductor stake. 

3 10-inch wing dividers with hardened points. 

2 Vises. 

EQUIPMENT FOR SHEET METAL WORKING CLASS 
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

1 Squaring shears, 30-inch. 

1 Bar folding machine, 30-inch. 

1 Cornice brake, 48-inch. 

1 Forming machine, slip roll, 2 x 30-inch 

1 Grooving machine, 30-inch. 



SCHOOL SHOP EQUIPMENT • 147 

1 Small turning machine. ^ 

1 Wiring machine. 
1 Large burring machine. > 

1 Beading machine. 

1 Crimping and beading machine. J (Without regular stand- 
ards. To fit in Holdall revolving machine standard.) 
1 Holdall revolving machine standard. 
1 Beakhorn stake. 
1 Blowhorn stake. 
1 Double seaming stake. 
1 Needlecase stake. 
1 Hatchet stake, 13-inch. 

1 Bevel edge square stake, 2% x 4%. 

2 Bench plates, 31 x 8-inch. 
15 Mallets, 2% x 5%. 

8 Gas furnaces, double burner. 
15 pairs, 2-pound soldering coppers (1 lb. each.) 
15 pairs, 3-pound soldering coppers, (1% lb. each.) 

1 Hand punch. 
15 pairs, No. 9 snips, straight. 

1 pair, No. 8 snips, straight. 

2 pairs, No. 9 snips, circular. 
1 pair, bench shears. 

8 Eiveting hammers. 
8 Setting hammers. 
8 Plumbers ' scrapers. 

1 Kaising hammers. 

2 Cutting nippers. 

1 No. 3 grooving tool. 
1 No. 5 grooving tool. 

1 No. grooving tool. 
8 Size 6, rivet sets. 

8 Size 4, rivet sets. 

2 Size 2, rivet sets. 
15 Prick punches. 

3 No. 8 solid punches. 
3 No. 6 solid punches. 
3 No. 4 solid punches. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 1-inch hollow punch. 

1 1^4-inch hollow punch. 

1 1 %-inch hollow punch. 

3 %-inch wire chisels. 
15 Scratch awls. 
60 soldering copper handles. 

1 No. 2 wire gauge. 



148 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

1 Steel rule, circumference. 

1 Conductor stake. 

3 10-inch wing dividers with hardened points. 

2 Vises. 

EQUIPMENT FOR ELEMENTARY SHEET METAL WORKING CLASS 

1 Bar folding machine, 30-inch. 

1 Forming machine, slip roll, 2 x 30-inch. 

1 Small turning machine. ^ 

1 Wiring machine. I 

1 Large burring machine. 

1 Stove pipe crimping and beading machine. J (Without 

regular standards. To fit in Holdall revolving machine 

standard.) 
1 Holdall revolving machine standard. 
1 Beakhorn stake. 
1 Blowhorn stake. 
1 Needlecase stake. 
1 Hatchet stake, 13-inch. 

1 Bevel edge square stake, 2% x 4%. 

2 Bench plates, 31 x 8 inches. 
12 Mallets, 2% x 5%. 

2 Gas furnaces, double burner. 
2 pairs, 2-pound soldering coppers (1 lb. each.) 
2 pairs, 3-pound soldering coppers (1% lb. each.) 
12 No. 9 snips, straight. 
2 pairs, No. 9 snips, circular. 

1 pair, bench shears. 

8 No. 3 riveting hammers. 
8 No. 3 setting hammers. 

2 Plumbers' scrapers. 
1 Raising hammers. 

1 Cutting nippers. 

1 No. 3 grooving tool. 

1 No. 5 grooving tool. 

1 No. grooving tool. 

2 Size 6, rivet sets. 
2 Size 4, rivet sets. 

2 Size 2, rivet sets. 

3 Prick punches. 

3 No. 8 solid punches. 
3 No. 6 solid punches. 
3 No. 4 solid punches. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 %-inch hollow punch. 
1 1-inch hollow punch. 



SCHOOL SHOP EQUIPMENT 



149 



1 1%-inch hollow punch. 

1 1%-inch hollow punch. 

3 %-inch wire chisels. 
12 Scratch awls. 
12 Soldering copper handles. 

1 Steel rule, circumference. 

1 Conductor stake. 

3 10-inch wing dividers with hardened points. 

2 Vises. 



U' 



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Figure 137A. — Suggested Arrangement of Sheet Metal Working Class 

Room. 



CONTENTS 

COURSE IN ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED 
SHEET METAL WORK AND 
PATTERN DRAFTING 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I Transferring Patterns to Metal 151 

II Cutting Patterns and Templates 156 

III Folding Edges and Seaming 163 

IV Forming, Grooving, Beading, and Crimping 169 

V Soldering 176 

VI Double Hemmed Edge 186 

VII Wiring Process 190 

VIII Notching and Burring 197 

IX Double Seaming, Peening, and Raising 207 

X Radial Line Developments 222 

XI Pitched Covers and Flaring Articles. 241 

XII Parallel Line Development 255 

XIII Pipe Intersections and Tee Joints 264 

XIV Elbows 274 

XV Return and Face Miters 285-301 



COURSE IN ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED 

SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN 

DRAFTING 

CHAPTER I 

TRANSFERRING PATTERNS TO METAL 

When the student or workman is required to make 
articles simple in form, from sheet metal, the pattern can 
be made directly on the metal from given measurements. 
If he is required to make an article round in form with 
flaring sides, or an article having an irregular shape, it 
is highly important to make a full-sized drawing and to 
develop the patterns. This necessitates operations with 
the drafting board and drawing instruments, which will 
be taken up later in this course. After the pattern is 
developed on detail paper, it may be transferred to the 
sheet metal and the work of construction begun. 

Methods of Transfer. — There are several methods of 
transfer in use, depending on the nature of the material 
and the shape of the pattern. For the more expensive 
materials, such as copper, brass, and German silver, the 
patterns and designs are transferred to the metal by 
means of carbon paper in the following manner : 

The carbon paper is laid upon the face of the material 
with the face or glossy surface touching the metal; the 
pattern is carefully placed over the carbon paper and 
held in position by small weights ; then with a hard pen- 
cil, stylus, or pointed tool firmly trace over the lines of the 

151 




Figure 138. — 'Simple Patterns, or Templates. Arrows Show Proper 
Direction to Cut Metals with the Shears. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 153 

drawing. This will give a print of the pattern on the 
bright metal. After obtaining a good impression, the 
carbon lines may be fixed on the metal by tracing over 
them with a steel scratch awl. 

Another method of transfer is used for the cheaper 
materials, such as tin plate, zinc, black iron, and gal- 
vanized iron. The process is as follows : Place the draw- 
ing paper directly on the metal, then go over the outline 
of the pattern with a sharp tapering prick punch, tapping 
it lightly with a small hammer, making slight indenta- 
tions on the metal at the principal points of the drawing. 
This method will be used throughout this course, and is 
in general use in the best commercial shops. 

The prick punch used in this work should be about four 
inches long by T % inch in diameter, the end being forged 
tapering to a sharp point,, as shown in Figure 139 (J) . A 
mistake often made by the student is to strike the punch 
too heavily with the hammer, driving the point through 
the metal. This is bad practice and should be avoided. 

Simple Patterns. — The first work of the student will 
be to draw to full size on paper, the set of simple pat- 
terns shown one-half size in Figures 138 and 139, then 
to transfer them to metal, using IC bright tin, or light 
galvanized iron not heavier than No. 28 gauge. These 
patterns, or templates, are transferred to the metal in 
the following manner : To transfer pattern A, set the 
dividers 1%" equal to the radius mn, take a small piece 
of scrap metal and describe a circle. A mistake is often 
made by the beginner by pressing too heavily upon the 
wing divider, causing a deep depression in the center of 
the circle. 

Patterns B, C, and similar forms, are transferred by 
pricking through the paper patterns to the metal. Place 
the pattern on the metal in a position to have as little 
waste of material as possible, placing a weight on the 
paper to keep it from moving ; light prick marks are 



154 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 




J 



Figure 139. — Simple Patterns, Continued. J, a Prick Punch. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 155 

made on the metal at corners of the pattern as shown by 
heavy dots; remove the paper, and with a straightedge 
and scratch awl, complete the pattern by describing lines 
connecting the prick marks on the metal. 

Patterns D, E, and F , are transferred to metal by 
pricking lightly the curved outline of the patterns. In 
pricking curved lines the prick marks should not be 
placed too far apart, but should be placed as shown from 
a to & in pattern E. After pricking # the outline of 
patterns, a scratch awl, or lead pencil, is used to 
draw the curved line through the points on the metal. 
If the prick marks were placed too far apart as 
shown from c to 6, pattern E, and a to b, pattern H, it 
would be impossible to draw the proper curve through 
the points, and the result would be a worthless pattern. 

When transferring patterns O and I, it is not necessary 
to prick around the circles. Prick the points a, b, and c, 
upon the metal, then set the dividers with the radius ab y 
and ac, and describe the circles on the metal. 

Use of Patterns. — If two or more pieces from a pattern 
are desired, do not prick through the paper pattern to 
obtain each piece. When one pattern is cut from metal, 
it should be used as a pattern whether two or a dozen 
pieces are required. Place the metal pattern upon the 
material, using a scratch awl, and scribe a line around 
the pattern. If the pattern is large, a weight should be 
placed upon it to keep it from moving, but if the pattern 
is small the weight is not necessary, as the pattern can be 
held in position with the fingers of the left hand while 
using the scratch awl with the right. 



CHAPTER II 

CUTTING PATTEENS AND TEMPLATES 

Hand Shears. — Sheet metal patterns are cut from 
metal by means of shears or snips of various shapes and 
sizes. The shears in general use for light work is known 
as the straight hand shears, or snip, having a left-hand 
cut, the length of the cut commonly being 3% inches, 
known as No. 8, an illustration of which is shown in Fig- 
ure 103 ("Sheet Metal Working Tools"). This shears, 
when taken in the right hand, has the lower blade on the 
left side of the shears, and cuts at the left side of the 
upper jaw. The position of the jaws enables the sheet 
metal worker to follow the cutting line accurately, as it is 
always in full view. 

Another straight shears, known as Lyon pattern snip, 
shown in Figure 106, is well adapted for regular work. ♦ 
The jaws are pointed and rounded, permitting the metal 
to pass freely when cutting curves, scrolls, and circles. 

Circular snips, shown in Figure 104, are well adapted 
for cutting small circles and openings of various shapes 
in sheet metal. The popular size is No. 9, with a length 
of cut of 3 inches. 

A bench shears, shown in Figure 102, is used for cut- 
ting heavy material. This tool is much larger than the 
ordinary hand shears. When in use it is fastened in the 
bench by inserting the prong in the bench plate, Figure 
95, or a hole of the proper size cut in the bench for this 
purpose. This shears has a right-hand cut, with the lower 
blade on the right side of the shears. Note the difference 
in the position of the upper blades in the right hand 
shears in Figure 103, and the right hand bench shears in 
Figure 102. 

156 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



157 



The double cutting shears, shown in Figure 108, is 
adapted to cutting off round and square pipes, bottoms of 
pails, cans, etc. A hole is punched in the article to be 
cut, and the point of the lower blade inserted, after which 
the cutting is done in the regular manner, leaving the 
edges clean and smooth. 

Squaring Shears. — Figure 1 (" Sheet Metal Working 
Machinery'') shows a modern squaring shears which is 
recommended for this course in cutting strips, squaring 
tin, and making long straight cuts across sheets of metal 
when shearing material for the construction of pipes and 
articles cylindrical in form. 




Figure 140. — How to Cut Circles to Avoid Waste of Metal. 



If the shears do not respond in cutting material of 
heavier gauges within the rated capacities claimed by the 
manufacturer, the blades should be set farther apart. 
The lower blade must be set back from the upper, though 
not far enough to burr the edge of the material. This 
adjustment can be made by releasing slightly the bed 
bolts that hold the bed of the shears to the legs, and by 
loosening the two front bed screws. The bed can then 
be shifted on its seat towards or away from the upper 
cutting blade until the proper position is secured. 

The blades can be easily removed for grinding, and 



158 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

when dull they should be returned to the factory for 
grinding. After being ground they are fastened securely 
to their frames and adjusted so that they will cut paper 
the entire length. 

Cutting Circles and Curves. — When cutting circles 
from metal, as shown in Figure 138, pattern A, take the 
straight shears, Figure 103, in the right hand, start the 
cut at n on the scribed line, and make a continuous cut 
around the circle in the direction of the arrow shown in 




a 

Figure 141. — Direction of Cut Shown by Arrows. 

na. When several circles are to be cut from a large piece 
of metal, care should be taken to avoid waste of material 
by scribing the circles tangent to each other upon the 
metal, as shown in Figure 140. 

After the circles have been marked on the metal in this 
manner, cut the metal into squares by following the 
dotted lines a and ~b, after which the circles are cut in the 
usual manner ; care being exercised in having each circle 
accurate and true. 

When cutting curves, the cut should be continuous. 
Short cuts should never be made ; stopping, and starting 
again at different points on the line, will result in an 
uneven pattern with rough edges containing slivers and 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 159 

projections that will cut the hands while working with 
the metal. When cutting patterns B and C, Figure 138, 
and similar forms, start to cut at the corner of the pat- 
tern, cutting in the direction of arrows ab, be. 

When cutting concave and convex curves, as shown in 
the outline of pattern D, Figure 138, use the straight 
shears, starting at a, and cut in the direction of arrows as 
shown in the drawing. 

Pattern E is shown in Figure 141. Starting at a, make 
a continuous cut from a to ~b, then placing the shears at 




Figure 142. — Best Method of Cutting Indicated by Arrows. 

point x on the pattern, cut from x to a. Complete the 
pattern by cutting in the opposite direction from x to 6, 

When cutting pattern F, as shown in Figure 142, the 
cutting should begin at a, then to l, then to c, then start- 
ing at x the leaves should be cut in the direction of the 
arrows. A continuous cut could be made from x to %, 
but in turning the shears at points d and e, the metal is 
likely to be torn and the pattern ruined. The circular 
shears, as shown in Figure 104, can be used to advantage 
in cutting the small curves in patterns E and F. 

The small circle in the center of pattern G, Figure 139, 
is cut out by using a hollow punch, as shown in Figure 
114. The metal is placed upon a lead or wooden block. A 



160 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



punch of m the required size is placed upon the circle and 
struck with a heavy mallet or hammer. If the piece of 
metal remains in the punch, it can be removed by striking 
the punch lightly with the hammer. Hollow punches are 
made in various sizes. 

When an opening is to be cut in a piece of light metal 
as at a in pattern I, Figure 139, place the metal upon a 
block of lead ; then by using a hollow punch or small thin 
chisel, cut a hole in the metal large enough to insert the 
point of the lower blade of the circular shears in the 
opening; then cut along the line in the direction of the 




m 



WL 



Figure 143. — Notched Patterns, the Shaded Portions Being the Notches. 



arrow. The outer circle is cut in the usual manner, 
which completes the pattern. 

Gutting Elbow Patterns. — When cutting elbow pat- 
terns or similar forms, as shown in H, Figure 139, the 
straight cuts b to c, c to d, d to e, are made with the 
straight snips, or upon the square shears. The upper 
curve of the pattern is cut by using the straight shears, 
starting at e and making one continuous cut ending at 6. 

In using the hand shears, a mistake is often made by 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



161 



the student in cutting beyond the stopping point shown 
on the pattern. This can be avoided by always complet- 
ing the cut with the point of the shears. When cutting 
from a to b, Figure 141, the end of the shears should be 
directly upon point b when making the final cut. The 
point of the shears is also used in notching patterns, as 
shown in A and B, Figure 143. When cutting out the 
shaded portion of patterns, the end of the shears blade 
should never extend beyond the point m in the pattern. 



End Elevation 




A 



<£ 



J" 



a; 



23 



Side Gaupe C 



Shear Bed 



Z 



Plan 
Figure 144. — Plan and End Elevation of Squaring Shears. 



Hints on the Care and Use of Hand Shears. — The fol- 
lowing suggestions are offered on the use and care of the 
hand shears and should be followed carefully by the 
student or workman : 

When using the shears the blade should be held in a 
vertical position, making straight up and down cuts. 

Never twist the shears sidewise when cutting, as this 
causes the bending of the edge of the metal, leaving a 



162 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

burred edge, which requires additional work in flattening 
it out with a mallet on a stake or level plate. 

Keep the shears sharp, but do not grind too fine an 
edge. 

The bolt and nut joint should be oiled frequently, and 
the nut adjusted so the shears will work easily at all 
times. 

Never use the cutting edges of shears for cutting wire, 
but always use instead the cutting nippers which are 
made for this purpose. 

Squaring Sheets of Metal. — In preparing sheets of tin 
for roofing purposes and constructing various sheet metal 
articles which require the sheets to be perfectly square 
and exactly the same size, with the edges true and 
straight, the sheets can be squared very rapidly and 
accurately on the squaring shears, Figure 1. A plan and 
end elevation of the squaring shears are shown in Figure 
144, where a is the front gauge, 6 the lower cutting knife, 
and c the side gauge. 



CHAPTER III 

FOLDING EDGES AND SEAMING 

One of the most important processes in sheet metal 
working is that of seaming. Seams of various kinds are 
used, depending on the strain to be resisted and the equip- 
ment on hand for constructing them. The machine in 
general use for bending the edges of sheet metal for 
seaming is known as the adjustable bar folder, as shown 
in Figure 15. The following edges and seams are exten- 
sively used in light sheet metal work: 

Single Edge. — This edge, as shown in Figure 145, is 
used in constructing seams and hemming the edges of 




Figure 145. — Single Edges formed on Sheet Metal. 

sheet metal. In forming this edge in the folder, set the 
gauge to the required width, then insert the metal in the 
machine, holding it firmly against the gauge with the left 
hand. Grasp the handle with the right hand and bring 
the folding bar over until it rests on top of the machine. 
The handle of the machine is now brought to its former 
position and the metal removed from the machine, com- 
pleting the operation. 

163 



164 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Double Edge. — The double lock, shown in Figure 146, 
while used in certain work, is most commonly utilized to 
strengthen sheet metal forms. When used for this pur- 
pose it is known as a double hemmed edge. This edge is 




Figure 146. — Double Hemmed Edges. 

formed in the folder in the same manner as the single 
edge. After the latter is formed, the sheet is turned over, 




Figure 147. — Wire Edge, Open and Closed. 

then the single edge is placed in the machine against the 
gauge and the operation is repeated. 

Wire Edge. — It is often necessary to increase the 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



165 



strength of articles made from sheet metal by inclosing a 
wire in certain of their edges. The edges for this pur- 
pose must be rounded as shown in Figure 147. To form 
an open or round lock for wiring, set the gauge on the 





Figure 148. — Ordinary Lap Seams. 




Figure 149.- 



-Folded Seam, Consisting of Two Single Edges Hooked 
Together. 



folder equal in width to two and one-half times the 
diameter of the wire to be used. Using the wrench, loosen 
the lock screw to the right on the back of the machine, 
and by moving this screw to the right or left in the slot 



166 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the wing is raised or lowered. In adjusting the machine, 
lower the wing equal in width to the diameter of wire to 
be used, fasten the lock screws firmly, then turn the edge 
in the usual manner. 

Lap Seam. — In Figure 148 is shown the ordinary lap 
seam, as used in the construction of small cylinders, 
square pipes, cornice miters, etc. This seam is usually 
soldered or riveted. When thin metal is used and the 
:seam is to be soldered, allow from %" to %" for lapping. 

Folded Seam. — In making this seam, a single edge is 
turned on the metal, and the edges are hooked together 
as shown in Figure 149, after which they are hammered 
down with a wooden mallet. Seams that are malleted 
down smooth are stronger and easier to solder than when 
uneven. Seams of this kind are used in laying flat seam 
tin and copper roofing. 

Grooved Seam. — With light material, the grooved seam 
is the universally used method of joining the edges of 
sheet metal. This seam is frequently used in joining two 
flat sheets of metal, making longitudinal seams in round 
and square pipes, and vertical side seams in sheet metal 
articles having a flaring or cylindrical surface. An illus- 
tration of this seam, showing the construction, is seen in 
Figure 150. When joining two flat pieces of metal by 
this method, set the gauge on the folding machine to the 
width of the edge required, and turn a single edge on 
the sheets as shown at A. Hooking the edges together as 
shown at B, the seam is laid on the horn of the grooving 
machine (Figure 42). The rolls run over the seam 
lengthwise, completing the seam as shown at C. When 
the grooving wheel is run over the seam, an offset is made 
in the upper sheet e at m, which prevents the seam from 
coming apart. The seam is finished by placing it on a 
mandrel stake, pounding it with a wooden mallet, closing 
it down, and leaving the seam tight and smooth. 

Allowance for Grooved Seam. — The amount of material 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



167 



to be added to the pattern for making a grooved seam 
from light sheet metal depends upon the width of the 
single edge turned on the folder, as shown in Figure 145. 
Three times the width of the single edge must be added to 
the pattern. The finished seam as shown at C, Figure 
150, has four thicknesses of metal at a, the sheets d and e 



B 




Figure 150. — Grooved Seam, Showing Construction. 

joining at m. The sheet d has a single edge c, while sheet 
e has a double edge, as shown at a and 6. This shows the 
necessity of making an allowance equal to three times the 
dimension a, or width of the edge, for a grooved seam. 
When seaming tin plate and metal lighter than No. 24 
gauge, no allowance is made for the stock taken up by the 
bends n, o, and p, in C, Figure 150. 

Where heavier material is used and accuracy is 
required, the actual amount of material taken up by these 
bends must be added. The student can determine the 
amount by making a test seam in the following manner r 



168 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Take a strip of metal six inches long. After cutting it 
into two parts, turn an edge on each piece. Groove the 
seam and close it down with a wooden mallet. Then meas- 
ure the length of the strip accurately, and the difference 
between this dimension and the length of the piece before 
seaming will be the amount of material to be added for 
the seam. 



CHAPTER IV 

FORMING, GROOVING, BEADING, AND CRIMPING 

This chapter will treat of the various processes used in 
the construction of conductor pipes, stove pipe, furnace 
pipe, and air ducts. Although work of this kind is chiefly 
used in building construction and heating and ventilating 
systems, the following will apply as well to forming and 
seaming sheet metal articles cylindrical in form, where 
the longitudinal seam is made with the usual grooved 
seam. 

When constructing pipes and cylinders the student 
must first find the circumference by multiplying the 
diameter by 3.1416, and to this dimension add the amount 
of material necessary for making the grooved seam, as 
shown in Figure 150. This will give the exact length to 
cut the material. 

Constructing Sheet Metal Pipe. — When constructing 
pipes an allowance should be made for the thickness of 
metal used. This is necessary to permit the small end of 
the joint to fit snugly into the large end of the adjoining 
joint of pipe. The usual method is to cut the small end 
of the joint %" less in circumference than the large end 
when using tin plate and light iron up to No. 26 gauge, 
and i/i" for No. 24 to No. 20 gauge. The best practice is 
to make a difference of seven times the thickness of the 
metal between the large and small end of pipe. 

When making pipe it is customary to place the sheets 
of metal on a bench behind the squaring shears (Figure 
1). Then set the front gauge back from the cutting 
blade of the shears, having the left end of the gauge equal 
to the length of the large end of the pipe and the right 

169 



170 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



end equal to the length of the small end. The sheet of 
metal is then passed between the shears blades. The 
student should extend his fingers and press down upon 
the middle of the sheet while holding it firmly against the 
gauge, and then cut the joint. Notch one corner of the 
small end. This notch will show which is the small end 
after the pipe is formed up. 

. After all the sheets have been cut, the joints are placed 
behind the folding machine (Figure 15) with the notched 



Upper Roll 



Rear Roll 




Lower Rbll 

figure 151. — Inserting the Sheet Between the Rolls of a Forming 
Machine, to Form a Cylinder. 

end to the right of the machine, and the single edges are 
turned as shown in Figure 145. 

Forming Cylinders. — The next step in the construction 
of the pipe is to form it into shape on the forming 
machine (Figures 35, 36). This machine is easily adjusted 
by means of the adjusting screws on each end of the 
machine, and the rolls can be set for forming any desired 
size of cylinder. The upper front roll is slightly raised, 
to allow the folded edge of the sheet to pass between the 
rolls without closing the lock. The sheet with the folded 
edge on the under side is inserted in the machine just far 
enough to allow the front rolls to grip the edge, as shown 
in a, Figure 151. Then holding the handle of the machine 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 171 

firmly to keep the sheet in this position, raise the sheet to 
the dotted position d, making a slight bend at c. This 
bend enables the sheet to pass easily over the rear roll, 
giving it the required curve, as shown in Figure 152. 

The adjustment is made by raising or lowering the rear 
roll until the required diameter is obtained. A cylinder 
having a grooved seam should be formed a trifle less than 




Rear Roll 



Front Roil 
Figure 152. — Position of Sheet When Cylinder Is Nearly Formed. 

its full diameter. This will allow the edges to hook tightly 
together while being grooved. 

GROOVING SEAMS 

Having formed the pipe properly, it is now ready for 
the grooving operation, which can be performed either 
by hand with the hand groover (Figure 116) and mallet 
over a mandrel stake (Figure 100) or upon the grooving 
machine (Figure 40). 

Operating the Grooving Machine. — After the edges of 
the pipe have been hooked together as shown in a, Figure 
153, the front latch of the machine is raised and the cylin- 
der inserted over the grooving horn, the end of the 
cylinder resting against the lower adjustable stop, which 
prevents the work from slipping. The traveling carriage 



172 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

is then brought forward, allowing the grooving roll to run 
over the seam lengthwise, completing the seam as shown 
in b, Figure 153. The carriage is returned to the start- 
ing point by means of a handle. It has two rolls, one for 
grooving, and one for flattening the seam at the same 
operation. 

Countersunk Grooved Seam. — This seam is used exten- 
sively in the construction of stove pipe, furnace pipe, 
and other sheet metal articles. This method of grooving 
places the seam on the inside, leaving an unbroken sur- 





Figure 153. — Pipe Seam Hooked Together and Grooved. 

face on the outside of the article, as shown in a, Figure 
154. 

When making this seam on the improved grooving 
machine, Figure 40, remove the grooving wheel from the 
traveling carriage, loosen the set screw, then turn the 
reversible grooving horn, bringing upward one of the 
grooves which is planed into the horn, as shown in ft, 
Figure 154. The cylinder is placed on the grooving horn 
with the locked edges directly over the planed groove. 
The traveling carriage containing the flat roll is brought 
forward, which presses the seam into the groove and thus 
completes the operation. 

Grooving Seams by Hand. — The ordinary small groov- 
ing machine shown in Figure 42, is used for seaming tin- 
ware, furnace pipes and articles made from light sheet 
metal, where a small seam can be employed to advantage. 
In sheet metal shops not equipped with a grooving 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 173 

machine, when it is required to seam articles made from 
black and galvanized iron by hand the article to be 
grooved is placed on the hollow mandrel (Figure 100), 
or the solid mandrel stake. The edges are hooked tightly 
together for their entire length. The hand grooving tool 
(Figure 116) is placed against the edge of the seam and 
struck with a wooden mallet (Figure 117). In this way 
the seam is grooved at one end for several inches. The 
other end is then grooved in the same manner, after which 





Figure 154; — a, Seam Grooved Inside Pipe ; b 3 Groove in Horn of Groov- 
ing Machine. 

the entire seam is grooved by striking the hand groover 
with the mallet while moving it along the seam. Care 
must be taken that the groover does not cut or mark the 
metal on either side of the seam. The seam is completed 
by flattening it down closely with the wooden mallet. 

BEADING AND CRIMPING 

In constructing articles cylindrical in form from light 
sheet metal, they are usually reinforced by being beaded 
or swaged upon the beading machine shown in Figures 
58, 59. When making cylinders or pipe of large diame- 
ter, several beads are usually placed close together near 



174 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the ends of the cylinder. This tends to strengthen the 
body, keeping it round in form. 

The beading machine is furnished with several sets of 
rolls, consisting of the single bead, ogee bead, triple bead, 
and the triple coffee pot bead rolls. The single and ogee 
bead rolls are generally used in beading the ends of pipe 
and large cylinders made from sheet iron. The triple 




Figure 156. — Plain Lap Pipe Joint, Showing Crimped Edge. 

bead and coffee pot bead rolls are used in swaging articles 
of tinware, both round and flaring in form. "When mak- 
ing pipe of various sizes, a single or ogee bead is usually 
made on the small end of the pipe. This bead serves to 
stiffen the pipe and aids in keeping the pipe straight 
when riveting the joints together. 

Operating the Beading Machine. — When beading pipe 
the gauge is moved back about 1% inch or 2 inches from 
the beading roll and fastened by means of the set screws. 
The small end of the pipe is then inserted between the 
rolls, with the end resting against the gauge. The rolls 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 175 

are now pressed together by means of the hand screw on 
top of the machine. The pipe is held in a horizontal posi- 
tion with the left hand while the machine is being turned 
with the right. The large end of the pipe should be 
allowed to pass easily through the fingers while being 
revolved in the machine, and care should be taken that 
the small end of the pipe is against the gauge at all times 
during the operation. A mistake often made by the 
student is to depress the upper roll too much. If this is 
done, there is great danger of cutting through the mate- 
rial. The beading process is clearly shown in Figure 155. 
Crimping Pipe. — After the pipe has been beaded, the 
next step is to draw in the small end with the mallet on 
the mandrel stake, or crimp the edge about % inch in 
width on the crimping machine shown in Figure 63. This 
operation contracts the edge of the pipe so that it will 
enter the next joint easily, as shown in Figure 156. The 
illustration shows a plain lap joint, having a lap of about 
2 inches, and can be either riveted or soldered, or both as 
required. 



CHAPTER Y 
SOLDERING 

The process of soldering consists of welding together 
pieces of metal by means of another metal of lower melt- 
ing point. Soft soldering may be taken to mean the 
uniting of pieces of metal with fusible alloys of tin and 
lead. 

In the operation of soldering, which is done by using 
soldering coppers for applying the heat, the solder must 
be fused to the pieces which are being joined. This is 
done by raising the temperature of the solder and the 
parts to be soldered to the fusing point. The solder is 
applied and sweated in by holding a hot soldering copper 
in contact with the seam until a correct fusing tempera- 
ture has been attained, with the result that the metals 
fuse together into one homogeneous mass, making a per- 
fect joint at every point. 

The absolute necessity of heating the parts to be sol- 
dered and raising them to the correct fusing temperature 
can not be too strongly emphasized. 

Fluxes. — When soldering two pieces of metal together, 
a perfect bond cannot be made unless oxide is kept out of 
the joint, and a flux must be used to prevent oxidation 
while the soldering operation is going on. The basis of 
all good fluxes is zinc chloride. 

Many sheet metal workers prepare their own flux by 
' ( cutting ' ' zinc in muriatic acid. This is done by putting 
pieces of zinc into a bottle of muriatic acid until the acid 
stops boiling and bubbles cease to rise. The acid eats 
away the zinc, liberating hydrogen during the process. 
This action continues until the acid is "cut" or "killed ;" 

176 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 177 

in other words, until all the hydrogen in the acid has 
been given all the zinc it will eat. What is left in the 
bottle is no longer muriatic acid, but is known as chloride 
of zinc. 

Muriatic acid is the commercial name for hydrochloric 
acid, and is often used in its raw state as a flux for solder- 
ing galvanized iron and zinc. 

Chloride of zinc, or " killed acid," is used as a flux 
when soldering clean galvanized iron, zinc, copper, and 
brass. When the material to be soldered is tin plate, 
bright copper, or lead, rosin is used as a flux, and when 
melting has a tendency to penetrate into the lock or seam. 
There are several kinds of soldering salts and noncorro- 
sive fluxes on the market, that are being used with good 
results by the sheet metal trade. A too strong flux will 
do harm to the work and to the soldering tools. Whatever 
flux is employed should be diluted with water to the weak- 
est condition for the work on hand. 

Solder. — Practically all solders used by the sheet metal 
worker are combinations of tin and lead. The quality of 
the solder must not be overlooked. Solder should be pur- 
chased from a reliable dealer who will furnish a good 
article, having the correct proportions of lead and tin. 
The solder generally used is composed of half tin and half 
lead, commonly called half-and-half. It melts at about 
370 degrees Fahrenheit. A better flowing solder, one 
having more resistance to stress, is composed of 60 per 
cent tin and 40 per cent lead. It melts at about 340 
degrees F. The latter is the best possible combination, 
with the objection, however, that it is very costly. 

Soldering Furnaces.- — Furnaces for heating soldering 
coppers are made to burn gasoline, gas, oil, and charcoal. 
The fire pot shown in Figure 126 is well adapted for 
burning charcoal. Gas furnaces, as shown in Figures 
128, 129, are most generally used ; their greatest point of 
superiority being in the continuous supply of fuel. 



178 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



SOLDERING COPPERS 

Soldering coppers of different sizes, suitable for differ- 
ent kinds of work (Figures 130-133) should be included 
in every shop equipment, and can be obtained in various 
weights. 

A small copper should not be used on heavy work, as 




Figure 157. — u, Soldering Copper for Tinware, Applied to Vertical 
Seam ; 6, Bottom Copper. 



it cannot contain enough heat to allow the solder to flow 
and sweat into the joint as it should. When the small 
copper is applied to the metal, it becomes cool quickly, 
with the result that the workman wastes much time in 
trying to keep the coppers hot, or in soldering with rela- 
tively cold coppers, which means poor work. After select- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 179 

ing coppers of suitable weight for the work at hand, the 
next point to consider is the required shape. 

Forging and Tinning Coppers. — Soldering coppers are 
forged to any desired shape by placing the copper in the 
furnace and heating it to a dark cherry color. The dross 
and scale is removed by means of a coarse file ; the copper 
is then forged to the required shape on an anvil or block 
of iron by means of a heavy hammer. Copper can be 
forged very easily if the metal is annealed or softened. 
The annealing operation for copper consists of heating 
the metal to a dull red heat. It can be allowed to cool out 
slowly in the air or by immersing in water. 

The soldering copper shown in Figure 157 (a) is 
forged to a pointed shape. It is well adapted for solder- 
ing seams in tinware or any other bench work and 
generally weighs three or four pounds a pair. The bottom 
copper shown in Figure 157 (6) is wedge-shape in form 
and is used for soldering the bottom seams of sheet metal 
articles on the inside. 

For soldering flat seams, coppers shaped as shown in 
Figure 131 are best adapted, being especially suitable for 
soldering flat-seam roofing, and should weigh from 6 to 
10 pounds a pair. 

Tinning Points of Coppers. — When tinning pointed 
coppers, they should be heated, then filed bright on four 
sides, not higher than about % inch from the point. This 
gives a bright smooth surface, ready for tinning. The 
coppers are again placed in the furnace and heated 
sufficiently to melt solder. The point of the copper is 
then rubbed lightly on a small block of sal ammoniac, 
which cleans the surface. A small portion of solder is 
now melted upon the sal ammoniac and by lightly rub- 
bing the copper back and forth upon the solder and sal 
ammoniac, it will become tinned and ready for use. 

Soldering coppers can be tinned with rosin, instead of 
sal ammoniac. This is usually done by placing a piece of 



180 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

solder and some rosin upon a board or soft brick. The 
copper is filed in the usual manner, then heated just hot 
enough to melt solder. It is next taken and rubbed on 
the solder and rosin until the solder adheres to the cop- 
per. This method of tinning is generally used when 
soldering tin, and if rosin is being used as a flux. 

Keeping the point of the copper bright and clean at 
all times is of vital importance. Never allow an oxide or 
scale to form on the points, for copper oxide is almost a 
non-conductor of heat and an oxidized soldering copper 
gives up its heat so poorly as to be practically useless. If 
a scale be allowed to form on the point, it flakes off and 
causes serious trouble in the soldering. A copper can 
never remain in good condition if it is overheated. When 
a copper is allowed to become red hot its usefulness is 
gone until it has been retinned. 

Dipping Solution. — When using charcoal, gasoline, or 
gas for heating, the point of the copper becomes discol- 
ored. Using an earthen fruit jar, mix a solution composed 
of 1/2 ounce of powdered sal ammoniac and one quart of 
water. After the sal ammoniac has been dissolved the 
solution is ready for use. The point of the heated cop- 
per, when taken from the furnace, is dipped quickly into 
this solution. This facilitates the soldering operation by 
making the tinned surface bright and clean. 

METHODS OF SOLDERING 

Soldering Flat Seams. — In Figure 158 is shown the 
method of soldering a flat seam having %-in.ch to %-inch 
lap. In this case two pieces of galvanized iron, about 2 1 /? 
by 8 inches, are used as shown by a and b. Muriatic acid 
is employed as the flux and care must be taken that the 
flux is allowed to enter the seam the width of the lap, and 
not merely brushed over the edge of the seam without 
allowing the acid to penetrate. The seam is now tacked 
with solder as shown at x. The seam is then soldered its 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



181 



entire length by placing the copper directly upon the 
seam and soldering from tack to tack, being careful 
always to allow the solder to cool before soldering from 
one tack to another. In placing the copper directly upon 
the seam as shown at c, Figure 158, the solder is drawn 
into the seam its full width, soaking it thoroughly as 
shown at d. 

Flat-locked seams are soldered in the same manner, by 
placing the copper directly upon the seam, as shown at 













i 


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1 4 


IX 




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IX 
IX 


a 


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Figure 158. — Method of Soldering a Flat Seam. 



a, Figure 159. Having applied the flux properly, the 
heated copper draws the solder into the seam, fusing the 
various metals and making a compact mass, as shown at 6. 

An improper way of placing the copper on the seam is 
shown at c; the soldering copper c, resting on the edge 
of the seam, allows but little solder to sweat into the joint 
as shown at d, resulting in a poorly soldered seam. 

When soldering a grooved seam on the inside of sheet 



182 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

metal articles, a mistake is often made by workmen and 
students in placing the copper on the seam in the position 
shown at e, Figure 159. When placed in this position, 
the copper is held on the wrong side of the seam, drawing 
the solder away from, instead of into the seam. The cop- 
per should be held directly upon the seam, heating it 
thoroughly and drawing the solder into the joint. 

Soldering Vertical Seams. — Upright seams in roof 
flashing, cornice gutters, and other work, whether lapped 



M 



1 



< i'i'j'i'?K - 




Figure 159. — Soldering Flat-Locked Seams ; an Improper Method of 
Placing the Copper Is Shown at e. 

or locked, are more difficult to solder than flat seams. 
The ordinary lapped vertical seam is shown at a, Figure 
157. When upright seams are to be soldered, no matter 
what metal is used, the soldering copper should be forged 
wedge-shape, being about %-inch wide and 14 -inch thick 
at the point when completed. The end and top side only 
are tinned as shown by the shaded portion in h, Figure 
157. 

When the end and upper face only are tinned, the 
solder can be easily controlled when applied to the seam. 
If the four sides of the copper were tinned, much of the 
solder would run to the under side and away from the 
seam, and result in a waste of time and material. 

When soldering vertical seams, the handle must be 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 183 

held higher than the copper to allow the solder to flow 
forward until the required amount has been transferred 
to the seam and sweated into the joint. This is done by 
moving the copper to the right and left on the seam, 
heating it thoroughly and drawing the solder into the 
seam, as shown at d, Figure 158. 

Repair Work. — When soldering old work and repairing 
sheet metal articles, the surface must be free from dirt 
or any substance which will prevent the solder from 
adhering to the metal. The parts to be soldered must be 
made perfectly bright by scraping or filing. Scraping is 
the best method and is usually done by means of a knife 
blade or tinner's scraper, shown in Figure 135. Regard- 
less of what method is used, the surface must be cleaned 
and made perfectly bright or good soldering cannot be 
done. When soldering old tinware, after the metal has 
been scraped, use chloride of zinc or "killed acid" as a 
flux, instead of rosin. 

Soldering Bench Work. — When soldering flat seams, 
ornaments on cornice work, bottom seams of tinware, 
and other small work at the bench, the work is often dis- 
colored by the hot copper burning the bench underneath 
and leaving a dark spot on the surface of the metal. This 
can be overcome by using a piece of black sheet iron, thick 
glass, or marble slab, upon which the work to be soldered 
can be placed. The glass or marble slab should? be % to 
%-inch thick. It can be easily cleaned and also Serves as 
a level plate while soldering. 

EQUIPMENT 

A good equipment for soldering is shown in Figure 
160. This includes a gas furnace, acid cup, jar for dip- 
ping solution, small block of s^l ammoniac, pointed 
soldering coppers, and a marble slab 14 inches square by 
%-inch thick. When soldering small articles, the solder 
should be applied to the copper, instead of directly to 



184 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 




SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 185 

the work. A bar of solder is placed on the bench, one 
end being raised by resting it on the edge of the marble 
slab, or by placing some small tool under it. The end of 
the bar of solder is touched with the point of the copper, 
and if it has been properly tinned, a small portion of the 
solder will melt and adhere to the copper, which is then 
applied to the parts to be soldered. 

STRIPPING ORNAMENTS AND PATTERNS 

When constructing dentils, brackets, letters, figures, 
and ornaments made from sheet metal, the parts are 
usually joined by the method of stripping. The next 
exercise in soldering will be to strip the pieces cut from 
patterns A and J, Figs. 138-139, in which the student 
obtains practice in soldering work of this kind. Using 
light galvanized iron as the material, set the gauge on the 
squaring shears (Figure 1) and cut strips %-inch in 
width and equal in length to the circumference of the 
circles, having them perfectly square on the end. The 
strips are now formed into a circle on the forming 
machine (Figures 35, 36) in the same manner as any 
pipe or cylinder. The pattern or face of the ornament 
is then placed on the marble slab. The circular strips 
are placed directly on top of the patterns, flush with the 
outer edge, and are soldered on the inside. A mistake 
often made by the student is to wrap the strip around the 
outer edge of the pattern. When this is done, the orna- 
ment when viewed from the front will show the edge of 
the strip. 

When soldering work of this kind, hold the strip in 
position with the left hand; flux the joint with a little 
muriatic acid, then transfer a small drop of solder from 
the end of the bar to the seam with a pointed copper, 
tacking it about an inch apart its entire length; after 
which solder the seam between tacks, as described in the 
instructions for soldering flat seams. 



CHAPTER VI 

DOUBLE HEMMED EDGE 

In Figure 161 are shown several cake cutters of var- 
ious forms, made of bright tin (see Figure 138). The 
upper edge of the body and edges of the handle are rein- 
forced by a double hem. These simple articles can be 
made of scrap material. The strips for the body are cut 
1%-inch wide and equal in length to the circumference 




Figure 161. — Cake Cutters of Patterns Seen in Figure 138. 

of the patterns B, O, D, E, F, Figure 138. To this length 
Vs-inch is added for a lap seam where the ends are joined. 
Hexagon-Shaped Cake Cutter, — In Figure 162 are 
shown a plan view, side view, and pattern of the hexagon- 
shaped cutter C, Figure 138. To find the length of mater- 
ial required, set the dividers equal to the length of one 
side as 1-2 in the plan. Starting at one end of the metal 
strip, mark the length of each side by spacing with the 
dividers, making a light impression on the metal at each 
point. Lines drawn through these points across the strip, 
as shown in A, 1234561, will mark the corners where 

186 







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188 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the metal is bent when formed into shape; Vs-inch is 
added for a lap seam, as shown at x. The lap is notched 
%-inch on the upper corner. This is done to allow for a 




T Vinch double hem, which will be turned on the upper 
edge of the strip. The pattern for the handle is cut 1% 
inch wide and equal in length to abed in the elevation. 
Notch the corners of the handle, as shown at D. Then 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 189 

set the gauge on the folding machine (Figure 15) T 3 e-inch 
and turn a double edge on each side of the handle and the 
upper edge of the body. 

The next step will be to form the handle and body by 
hand on the needle case stake, shown in Figure 98. Place 
the metal strip with the bending line on the edge of the 
flat end of the stake, then bend the metal to the required 
angle, as shown by the template B. Each corner is bent 
in the same manner and should fit the template accurately 
when completed. The handle is formed by making a 
square bend on lines b and c in pattern Z>. The cutter is 
completed by soldering the seam at the corner and solder- 
ing the handle to the upper edge of the body in the posi- 
tion shown at mn in plan B. 

The cutters B, D, E, F, Figure 138, are formed in a 
similar manner over the various stakes at hand. The 
following stakes are suitable for this purpose : Hatchet 
stake, conductor stake, blowhorn stake, candle mold 
stake, beakhorn stake. See Figures 98, 99, 100. 

These stakes are used for various purposes and are 
fastened to the bench by inserting the square tapered 
shank into the proper size holes, cut in the bench for this 
purpose, or by having a cast-iron bench plate fastened to 
the bench, as shown in Figure 95. These bench plates 
can be obtained in different sizes and contain the proper 
size holes for holding stakes, bench shears, etc. 

In Figure 163 is shown an illustration of a work bench 
with bench plates inserted in the top. The bench is 3x16 
feet in size with a shelf underneath for holding stakes 
when not in use. This is a good arrangement for a school 
shop, as students can work on both sides of the bench at 
the same time. 



CHAPTER VII 
WIEING PEOCESS 

In constructing work made of tin-plate and light gauge 
metal several methods are used to reinforce the top of 
the article, to keep its shape and to withstand rough 
usage. For very small articles this is done by turning a 
single or double hem on the edge of the metal, as pre- 




Figure 164. — Sheet Metal Can and Method of Riveting Band Iron to 

the Top Edge. 

viously described. Large sheet metal articles are often 
stiffened by having band iron riveted to the top edge as 
shown in Figure 164. 

The method most commonly used to increase the 
strength of flaring and straight articles is to inclose a 
wire or iron rod of suitable size in certain of their edges. 
The wire can be laid in by hand or by means of the wiring 
machine shown in Figure 45. 

Allowance for Wiring. — It is important to know the 
exact amount to be added to the height of the pattern for 
the take-up of the wire. The amount usually added foi 
this operation is equal in width to two and one-half times 

190 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 191 

the diameter of the wire. Another method is to allow 
three-fourths of the circumference of the wire. 

When using tin plate and light sheet metal, it is cus- 
tomary to make no allowance for the thickness of the 
metal, but in wiring heavy plate an allowance must be 
made for the thickness of the material used. The amount 
of material for covering the wire will vary according to 
the thickness of the metal and the size of the wire to be 
inclosed and is found by the following rule : 

Add twice the diameter of wire to four times the thick- 
ness of metal. 




Figure 165. — Biscuit Cutter, Wired in Top Edge. 

As an example, suppose in constructing a tank from 
sheet iron T Vinch thick, the top is to be reinforced by 
inclosing a %-inch rod ; then the amount to be added to 
the net height for wiring will be %X2 plus TVX4, equals 
1*4 inch. 

The most accurate and practical method to determine 
the allowance for wiring is to take a narrow strip of 
metal and bend it closely around the wire with the pliers. 
This will give the exact amount of material required. 

In wiring articles made from tin plate, Nos. 8, 10, 12, 
13, and 14, coppered or tinned iron wire is commonly 
used. The amount of material to allow for inclosing the 
above sizes of wire when using IC tin plate, and the width 






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SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 193 

of edge to be turned on the folding machine, are given 
in the following table : 

16 

5 y 

16 

Wiring Operation. — When wiring articles cylindrical 
in form having straight sides, such as cans, tanks, and 
articles of tin-ware, the wire is inclosed in the edge of 
the metal while in the flat sheet before being formed into 
shape. The following problem is given to. demonstrate 
the wiring operation and the method used in laying out 
patterns for work of this kind : 

In Figure 165 is shown a biscuit cutter. This is a 
useful article made from I G bright tin, having a No. 14 
iron wire inserted in the top edge. The seam in the body 
is lapped and soldered. The handle is double hemmed on 
the edges. The dimensions of the cutter and the patterns 
for the body and handle are shown in Figure 166. The 
pattern A for the body is cut 8% inches long by 1% 
inches wide. To find the length of the pattern, multiply 
the diameter 2% inches by 3.1416=8 1 / 4 inches; to this 
amount add i/s-inch for the lap seam. The height of cut- 
ter is 1% inches when completed ; to this dimension add 
T 3 6-inch, the allowance required for inclosing a No. 14 
wire; then 1%+t 8 6=1t% inches, is the width of pattern; 
the %-inch lap is notched ^-inch at the upper corner to> 
allow for turning the wire edge. 

The open or round edge for the wire is now turned on 
the folder as shown at c, a piece of wire equal in length to 
a b in pattern A is laid under the edge, and the metal 
closed over the wire for about one inch from the end. 
This is done with the hammer over the horn on the stand- 
ard of the wiring machine. 



194 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Wiring Machine. — In Figure 167 is shown a sectional 
view of the wiring machine, used to complete the opera- 
tion. Holding the work D in a horizontal position, place 
it on the lower roll B with the wire edge held firmly 



/k 




B 



r 



^ 



Figure 167. — Sectional View of Wiring Machine. 




Figure 168. — Wiring Machine in Operation. 

against the gauge C, bring down the upper roll A, and 
adjust the gauge, having the curved flange on the upper 
roll fit snugly over the wire. The work is then run 
through the rolls until the metal is fitted closely over 
the wire. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 195 

In Figure 168 the wiring operation is illustrated, giv- 
ing a full view of the machine and the proper position of 
the hands. If the rolls should slip when wiring heavy 
metal, this is overcome by pulling the work lightly as it 
passes through the rolls. 

The next step in the construction of the cutter is to 
form the body on the forming rolls (Figures 35, 36). The 
wired edge is placed in one of the grooves cut in the end 
of the rolls for this purpose, and the body is then formed 



^ 






Figure 169. — Operations in Wiring an Edge by Hand. 

the same as a cylinder. The wire should never be formed 
elsewhere than in these grooves. 

Before inserting the work in the forming machine, 
place the work on the conductor stake (Figure 100) and 
slightly curve both ends of the wire by striking it lightly 
with a mallet. This enables the work to pass easily over 
the back roll of the forming machine. 

Pattern B (Figure 166) for the handle is formed in. 
the usual manner, after which the ends of the wire on 
the body are joined together, and the seam is soldered 
having the lap on the inside. The handle is soldered to 
the top in the position shown in C and D, Figure 166. 



196 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

When forming cylinders in very small diameters, made 
from stiff or heavy metal, do not attempt to secure the 
correct diameter by passing the work once through the 
rolls, but form it gradually by passing through several 
times. 

Wiring by Hand. — In wiring very heavy material, or 
when the sheet of metal is greater in length than the 
folding machine, making it impossible to turn the edge 
for wire on the folder, the wiring operation is performed 
t>y hand as follows : 

After marking the wire allowance on the metal by 
means of the dividers or scratch awl, lay the sheet with 
the scribed line directly over the edge of the bench or 
some other straight edge. Take the mallet and bend the 
metal to an angle of 90° as shown at a, Figure 169. Turn 
the sheet over on the bench and by means of the mallet 
bring the edge to the position shown at &. The wire is 
then laid under the edge and the metal is bent closely 
over the wire as shown at c. The operation is completed 
by running the work through the wiring machine (Figure 
45) in the usual manner. The right angle bend a, Figure 
169, can also be made on the cornice brake (Figures 24, 
27, 29) and the wiring operation completed as described 
above. 



CHAPTEK VIII 
NOTCHING AND BUKKING 

Every experienced sheet metal worker understands the 
importance of notching patterns properly for wiring and 
seaming. Special attention should be given by the stu- 
dent to this part of the work, and great care should be 
taken that the corners are notched in such a manner that 




Figure 170. — Sheet Metal Cup, Notched and Burred. 

when the work is formed up and seamed, the notched cor- 
ners will fit snugly together without overlapping or leav- 
ing an opening exposing the wire at the end of the seam. 

In constructing sheet metal articles in the form of a 
cylinder, having a wire inserted in the top edge, and the 
lower end inclosed with a bottom of the same material, if 
the side seam is grooved the corners of the pattern must 
be notched for wiring and seaming in such a manner that 
when finished the article will present a neat appearance. 

We will take for a description of the notching and 
burring processes the making of a sheet metal cup, shown 
in Figure 170. This is the next problem given in the 

197 



19S SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

graded series that we are following. These cups are made 
up in different sizes and for various purposes. 

The method of construction and patterns for the cup 
are shown in Figure 171, in which the sectional view at 
E shows the construction. A No. 12 wire is inclosed in 
the top edge at kk, the bottom with a single edge at mm 
is slipped over the body and soldered on the inside. The 
pattern for the body is a rectangular piece of IC bright 
tin, equal in length to the circumference of the body 
shown at A. To this dimension is added an allowance for 
a %-inch grooved seam. The width of pattern is equal to 
the height plus the ^-inch allowance for a No. 12 wire. 

Notching Patterns. — Having cut the material the re- 
quired size, the next step is to notch the pattern for wir- 
ing and seaming, as shown by the shaded corners in pat- 
tern C. The upper corners are notched for wiring as 
shown by abed. The width of the notches da and ef is 
equal to one and one-half times the width of the %-inch 
edge turned for the seam. When a %-inch edge is turned, 
% inch is allowed for the seam, and one-half of this 
amount or T 3 g inch is notched from each corner. This 
will allow the notched corners a and e to fit snugly to- 
gether. The grooved seam extends up to the wire as 
shown at o. The distance ab should be slightly greater 
than the allowance for covering the wire. A continuous 
cut is made from a to & to c, cutting be on an angle of 45°. 
The lower corners are notched on an angle of about 45°, 
the width being one and one-half times the width of the 
edge to be turned. The corners g and h will then fit to- 
gether, leaving only one thickness of metal on the lower 
edge after the grooved seam is completed. 

After the pattern has been properly notched, set the 
gauge on the folder (Figure 15) % inch, then place one 
end of the pattern against the gauge, with the upper cor- 
ners that have been notched for wire facing toward the 
right end of the machine. By placing the work in the 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 199= 

folder in this manner, the edges for the seam are turned 
in their proper position for wiring and seaming. The 
body is then wired, formed up on the rolls, and the seam 
grooved. These operations have been fully described in 
previous chapters. 

The pattern D for the handle is laid out by drawing a 
center line, making ad equal in length to abed in elevation' 
A. Through points a and d at right angles to the center 
line draw st and uv, equal to the width of the top and 
bottom of the handle. Next draw lines su and tv. Then 
sutv will be the pattern for the handle, with the allow- 
ance added for a single hemmed edge. The corners are 
notched as shown in the drawing, and a Vg-inch single 
edge turned on the sides. The handle is then formed by 
hand over the tapering end of the blowhorn stake (Figure 
98). 

The method of drawing the profile of the handle is 
shown in the elevation. At pleasure locate the point c 
where the lower end of the handle joins the cup. The 
upper end of the handle fits closely under the wire at 
point a. Using the 45° triangle, draw lines from points 
c and a intersecting at b. Bisect line ab at e; with eb as 
radius, and e as center, describe a half circle connecting 
a and b. The amount cd is added for a lap at the lower 
end. Then abed will be the profile and stretch-out of the 
handle. 

After the edges have been turned on the handle, as 
shown in F, Figure 171, set the gauge on the small burring 
machine (Figure 47) equal to the width of the edge nw. 
Then run the work through the machine, having the 
upper roll turn the inner edge n against the handle, as 
shown at y in O. This operation will make the handle 
rigid, giving it a finished appearance after being formed 
into shape. 



:200 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



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SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 201 

BURRING MACHINE 

The burring machine shown in Figure 47 is used for 
various purposes and is well adapted for turning small 
edges on circular pieces of metal, edging hoops and rims 
of covers, and bodies of sheet metal articles for seaming. 
These machines are made in two sizes for general work. 
The small machine is used for turning edges on small 
curves, and will burr edges up to T 3 e inch in width. For 
large curves the large machine is preferable ; an edge or 
flange up to y± inch wide can be turned on this machine. 

When burring edges for seaming light sheet metal, the 
experienced workman will turn the edge as small as pos- 
sible, as he fully understands that it is almost impossible 
to turn a wide edge evenly on thin metal without crimp- 
ing the burr. A narrow edge for seaming is practically 
as strong as a wide edge. It can be turned easily, and the 
seam will have a more finished appearance when com- 
pleted. 

Burring Edges. — Turning edges on the burring ma- 
chine is a difficult operation for the beginner. It re- 
quires careful work and practice to become proficient in 
burring an even edge on a circular piece of flat plate, 
without crimping the burr or warping the metal. 

The pattern for the cup bottom with an allowance for a 
single edge is shown in B, Figure 171. The bottom is sim- 
ply a circular piece of metal having an edge % inch wide 
turned at a right angle. To find the size of the bottom, 
measure the diameter of the body, and to this dimension 
add twice the width of the burr to be turned by means 
of the small burring machine. 

After the bottom is cut from metal, then proceed to 
burr the edge in the following manner : Having made an 
allowance for a % -inch burr on the bottom, set the gauge 
on the machine a scant % inch from the edge of the upper 
roll. This will allow for the take-up of the material after 



202 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the edge is turned. Then holding the bottom in a horizon- 
tal position, place the edge of the metal on the lower roll, 
touching the gauge. Next bring down the upper roll until 
the metal is held firmly between the rolls. Then with the 
palm of the left hand resting against the frame of the 
machine, grasp the bottom between the thumb and fin- 
gers, the ball of the thumb resting on the upper side near 
the center, with the fingers extended on the lower side. 
With the hand in this position, holding the edge of the 
bottom firmly against the gauge, allow the metal to pass 
between the thumb and fingers while revolving in the ma- 
chine. After the first revolution and while the machine 




Figure 172. — Burring an Edge on Cup Bottom. 

is turning, the bottom is gradually raised until the edge is 
turned to the required angle. 

The correct position of the hand while burring edges 
on flat circular pieces of metal is shown in Figure 172. 
This method of holding the disc will keep the metal from 
warping out of shape while turning the edge. The bot- 
tom is then slipped over the body and the cup soldered on 
the inside, after which the handle is soldered in position, 
completing the problem. 

BRAKING TIN 

When constructing articles made from tin plate, sharp 
parallel kinks or wrinkles will often appear on the metal 
after being formed on the rolls. This can be avoided if 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 203 

the sheets are taken before wiring and passed through the 
forming rolls three or four times. With each pass they 
are reversed, then straightened out by being pulled over 
the rear roll while making the last pass through the ma- 
chine. When formed up again the metal will not wrinkle. 
This process is known to the sheet metal worker as "brak- 
ing tin" and is used constantly by the careful workman, 
for the parallel kinks are always evident if the metal is 
only rolled once. 

SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 

Before continuing with the next of the graded problems 
in this series, several supplementary problems are given, 
the construction being similar to the cup problem de- 
scribed in this chapter. These problems consist of small 
drinking cups and measuring cups for household use, and 
are usually made from IC or IX bright tin, having a No. 
14 wire inclosed in the top. As these utensils hold a given 
quantity, unusual care must be observed by the workman 
when making the allowances for wiring and seaming. 

Cup Dimensions. — The following table gives the diame- 
ter and height for different cups from y 2 pint to one quart 
in size : 



Size 




Diameter (Inches) 1 


height (Inches 


y 2 pint 




O 9 
^16 


915 


y 2 pint 




2% 


2% 


1 pint 




3 


3% 


1 quart 




3A 


5% 


Drinking 


cup 


3 


2% 


Drinking 


cup 


3% 


2% 



PATTERNS FOR A MEASURE LIP 

Another adaption of the cup problem is the one quart 
lipped measure shown in Figure 173. The construction 
is the same, except that a circular flaring lip is attached 



204 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



to the top. The handle is double hemmed, and the body 
is graduated into four parts and marked on the metal by 
means of the beading machine. (Figure 59.) 

The dimensions of the measure and method of obtain- 
ing the pattern for the lip are shown in Figure 174. First 
draw the elevation A to the required size. Then draw 
the side view of the lip B as shown by abed, extending the 
lines until they intersect at e. "With / as center describe 
the half section of the top of the measure as shown by 
b5d; divide this semicircle into equal parts as shown. The 




Figure 173. — One-Quart Measure with Flaring Lip. 

lip is an intersected frustum of a right cone, which can 
be developed by the radial method. 

If the time is limited and only a few pieces are re- 
quired, there are several short methods which can be ap- 
plied to the same purpose. An approximate pattern de- 
veloped by one of the short methods in common use is 
shown in C, Figure 174, and may be produced as follows : 
Draw a center line as AB and on it fix a convenient point 
e. With the compasses set to a radius equal to ed in the 
elevation A, scribe the arc dbd; starting from the point b 
space off a distance dd on each side equal to one-half the 
circumference of the top of the measure, as shown by the 
figures 1 to 9 in the half -section in the elevation. Draw 
a line from e extended through d, and place the width of 
the back of the lip as shown from d to c. Now take the 
distance of the front of the lip db and place it as shown 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



205 



from b to a. Draw a line from c to a and bisect it to ob- 
tain the center point m. From m at right angles to ca, 

A 




Figure 174. — Plan of Measure with Flaring Lip, and Patterns for Lip. 

draw a line intersecting the center line AB at n. Then 
with n as center and nc as radius, describe the arc cac, 
which will complete the net pattern for the lip. Add an 



206 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

allowance for a lap seam on the end, and a Vs-n^h edge 
for a single hem on the top. After this edge has been 
turned in the burring machine (Figure 47) the lip is 
placed on a flat stake and the edge closed down by means 
of the mallet. Then the lip is formed on the blowhorn 
stake, placed in position on the top of the measure, and 
soldered on the inside. Lips for measures of large diame- 
ter are usually wired at the top edge, and the allowance, 
for wire is made in the usual manner. 

Another style of lip is shown by abgh in elevation, and 
incloses about three-fourths of the circumference of the 
measure. The top is cut off as shown by the dotted line 
ag. The method of laying out the pattern for a lip of this 
form is shown in D, and is obtained as follows : Draw 
center line AB. Set the compasses to a radius equal to 
three-quarters of the diameter of the top of measure. 
With a as center, describe the arc bed. Next set off the 
width ce, and make the distance cm equal to one-half the 
diameter of the measure. With m as center and me as 
radius, describe an arc intersecting the arc bd. Cut off 
the end of the pattern as shown, making fg equal in width 
to gh in the elevation. Add allowances for wiring or hem- 
ming the top, thus completing the approximate pattern 
for the lip. 



CHAPTER IX 

DOUBLE SEAMING, PEENING, AND RAISING 

The next problem of this series is the covered pail 
shown in Figure 175, the construction of which involves 
the processes of cutting, notching, wiring, seaming, and 




Figure 175. — One-Quart Covered Pail with Bottom Double Seamed. 

burring, the same as the sheet metal cup described in 
the last chapter. 

The construction of the body is practically the same, 
the only difference being that the bottom of the pail is 
double seamed to the body, instead of being slipped over 
the side as was done in constructing the cup. When the 
bottom of any sheet metal article is to be joined to the 
body, the diameter of .which is 4 inches or larger, it is 
generally double seamed, either by hand or machine. The 
operations are fully described and shown in constructing 
the problem as follows: 

207 



208 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 




Elevation 



I 



i 




M 



■131 



m 



A 






Figure 176. — Elevation and Patterns of One-Quart Covered Pail. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 209 

In Figure 176 are shown the elevation, patterns, and 
dimensions of a one-quart covered pail. This is a regular 
stock size and will allow two bodies to be cut from a 10x14 
sheet of tin without waste. The body has a No. 12 wire 
inclosed in the top, with a i/s-inch grooved seam on the 
side. The cover is raised into shape from the flat metal, 
having a flaring hoop attached that fits on the inside of 
the pail. The wire bail or handle is fastened to the ears, 
which are made of malleable iron riveted to the body. 
The pattern A for the body is cut on the squaring shears 
(Figure 1) to the required size. The corners are notched 
and the edges turned for wiring and seaming. The body 
is then wired, formed, and the side seam grooved on the 
machine. 

THE DOUBLE SEAMING PROCESS 

After the body has been completed, we are ready for 
the bottom, which is joined to the body by the process of 




Figure 177. — Burring Edge on Bottom of Pail, Showing Correct Posi- 
tion of the Hands. 

double seaming. The operations are clearly shown at 
B, C, T>, Figure 176. The sectional detail at B shows an 
edge turned at a right angle to the body. The bottom is 
hooked over the edge on the body, as shown at (7. The last 
operation and finished seam is shown at D. 

Burring Edge on Body. — The first operation, burring 
the edge on the body, is shown in Figure 177. This edge 



210 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

is turned by means of the small burring machine (Figure 
47) as follows: Set the gauge, on the machine the re- 
quired width for turning a y 8 -inch edge. Then hold the 
work in the left hand and place the edge against the 
gauge. Now, bring down the upper roll until the metal 
is held firmly between the rolls. The edge is then burred 
by allowing the work to revolve between the thumb and 
fingers while holding it against the gauge as it passes 
through the machine. The edge is brought to a right 
angle to the body by slightly raising the left hand while 
it is being burred. The correct position of the hands dur- 
ing this operation is shown in Figure 177. 

Edge Allowance for Bottom. — The pattern for the bot- 
tom and the allowance for edges are shown at E, Figure 
176. The diameter of the body is shown at C, and the 
allowance for a %-inch edge on the body at ~b; a smaller 
edge turned on the bottom is shown at a. 

When making a double seam, an experienced workman 
will always turn the edge on the bottom smaller than the 
edge turned out on the body. This will allow the edge to 
be doubled over without binding against the side during 
the operation. Never turn wide edges for double seaming. 
A small edge is more easily seamed and will have a neater 
appearance when finished. 

After the edge has been turned on the body of the ar- 
ticle, the diameter of the bottom is usually found by 
measuring from edge to edge through the center ; to this 
dimension add twice the width of the edge to be turned 
on the bottom. The bottom is now cut from metal and the 
edge burred on the small burring machine (Figure 47) 
while holding the bottom in the position shown in Figure 
172. The bottom is then hooked over the edge on the body 
as shown at C, Figure 176. The edge is next closed down 
tightly by means of the setting hammer (Figure 111) or 
the setting down machine (Figure 49) . 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 211 

THE PEENING PROCESS 

The term peening means to the sheet metal worker the 
process of closing or "setting down" edges by means of 
the setting hammer shown in Figure 111. These hammers 
are m^de in different sizes, having a narrow beveled edge 
on one end, the face of the hammer being square in form. 
Figure 112 shows a riveting hammer used by sheet metal 
workers. This tool has a rounded edge on the tapered 
end, and is not suitable for peening purposes. 

The bottom of the pail in our problem being ready for 
peening, the operation is simple and is clearly demon- 
strated in Figure 178. The illustration shows the bottom 
resting on the flat top of the square stake, also the posi- 




Figure 178. — Peening Edge of Bottom, Showing Position of Hands 
and Setting Hammer. 

tion of the hands and hammer while closing down the 
edge. When peening the edge, care must be taken not to 
strike the sharp edge of the hammer against the body of 
the article, as that will make a disfiguring mark on the 
metal, showing careless work. This method of setting 
down the edge is universally used when seaming heavy 
material or large articles made from light metal. 

Setting Down Machine. — "When double seaming articles 
made from tin plate or light metal, if the edges have been 
turned true and even, the peening operation can be per- 
formed on the setting down machine (Figure 49). This 
operation is shown in Figure 179. The article is held 
bottom upward and the edge run between the two rolls, 



212 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



which will turn down and compress the edges, making a 
tight smooth joint ready for double seaming. 

An improved setting down machine is shown in Figure 
52. This machine is well adapted for setting down the 
edges on both straight and flaring articles. The inclined 
position of both rolls allows the work to be held with 




Figure 179. — Operating the Setting Down Machine. 




■7-T" 




Figure 180. — Double Seaming on Stake. 

the bottom up or down, and the operator can start the 
seam inward while setting it down to facilitate double 
seaming. 

Double Seaming by Hand. — The final operation of the 
double seaming process is shown in Figure 180. The body 
of the article is slipped over the end of the double seam- 
ing stake and the edge bent over by means of the wooden 
mallet in the following manner : Hold the body firmly 
on top of the stake with the left hand in the position 
shown in the illustration ; then turning the article slowly, 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 213 

strike an inward blow with the mallet, bending the edge 
at an angle of 45° while making one revolution of the bot- 
tom; complete the operation by hammering the seam 
down tight and smooth while holding the mallet in a 
vertical position. 

When double seaming small articles, the double seam- 
ing stake shown in Figure 99 is well adapted for the 
work. For seaming large work or articles made from 
heavy material, the double seaming stake with four heads 
shown in Figure 100 will prove very suitable for a va- 
riety of work. 

Double Seaming by Machine. — Double seaming ma- 
chines are made in various styles, and if work is to be con- 
structed in large quantities a machine for this purpose is 
indispensable. The machine shown in Figure 69 is 
adapted to many kinds of work, and many sheet metal 
workers prefer this type of seamer for general use. 

Constructing Covers. — When constructing a cover made 
from light metal, it must be remembered that the first re- 
quirement is that it shall be rigid and strong enough to 
hold its shape without warping after the hoop has been 
attached to the rim. The hoop is made flaring in shape, 
so that it can be fitted snugly on the inside of the article. 
Covers of large diameter are generally constructed in the 
form of a flat cone, while the smaller sizes are either ma- 
chine stamped or raised into shape from the flat metal by 
means of the raising hammer shown in Figure 110. Rais- 
ing hammers can be obtained in different sizes and weights 
suitable for the work in hand. 

Template for Hoop. — The method of laying out the pat- 
terns and the construction of the one-quart pail cover is 
shown in Figure 181. A detailed section showing the con- 
struction is given at A, The template, or pattern, for 
scribing the arc of the flaring hoop is shown at B, and is 
made in the following manner : 

Using a piece of heavy tin 20 inches long, turn a double 



214 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



hem on one side; locate points d and e 1% inches from 
hemmed edge as shown by ef; then with the trammel 
points, using a 36-inch radius, scribe an arc from d to e. 
The metal is now cut on this line and a ^-inch hole 
punched near one end for hanging the template on the 
wall for future use. This template can be used for mark- 




Figure 181. — Patterns' and Construction of One-Quart Pail Cover. 

ing out hoops of any diameter. For large covers the hoop 
can be made in two or more pieces. 

The hoop for the one-quart pail cover is made from one 
piece of metal, equal in length to the circumference of the 
body, and is laid out directly on the metal as shown at C. 
Whether one or a dozen pieces are required, set the points 
of the wing dividers equal to the width of the hoop. Then 
start at the lower edge of the sheet and mark the width of 
each hoop by making a light impression on the metal with 
the point of the dividers, as shown at mm on both ends of 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



215 



the sheet. The template B is now placed on the lower 
edge of the sheet with the rounded side touching the cor- 
ners. Then using the scratch awl, scribe a line on the 
metal as shown from g to g. The template is moved up- 
ward on the sheet to the prick marks mm, and the arc is 
scribed across the sheet, completing the pattern for one 




Figure 182. — The Raising Block (a) and Method of Raising a Circular 
Disc or Cover. 



hoop. This process can be repeated for any number re- 
quired. 

After the hoop has been cut from metal and formed 
upon the rolls, it is fitted to the pail by inserting it in 
the top, having it project about % inch above the wired 
edge. "While in this position mark the end; then cut off 
the surplus length, allowing about % inch for lap, and 
notch the corner as shown at a in pattern D. After the 



216 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

lap is soldered, a %-inch edge is burred on the upper edge, 
as shown in the drawing at aa in F. A pattern for the 
cover, shown at E, is simply a circular piece of metal, the 
diameter of which is found in the same manner as the pat- 
tern for the pail bottom shown at E, Figure 176. After 
the dimension has been ascertained by this method, cut 
the metal % inch larger in diameter, to allow for the 
take-up during the raising process. 

THE RAISING PROCESS 

The Raising Block. — In constructing sheet metal balls, 
ornaments for cornice work, curved moldings, and covers 
for various articles, the sheet metal worker is often re- 
quired to raise, or bump, the work into form from the flat 
metal, by means of the raising hammer and raising block. 
The raising block is made from some substance giving 
resistance to the blows, and a hardwood or lead block is 
generally used for this purpose. The trunk of a hardwood 
tree, about 36 inches high and 12 inches in diameter, 
having several shallow circular depressions of varying 
depth and diameter, cut in one end, is well adapted for 
this work. 

When raising small forms, lead blocks are generally 
used, cast in a shape similar to that shown at A, Figure 
182. These lead blocks are about 9x12 inches in size and 
about 4 inches high. The depression in the top is made by 
hammering with the round end of the raising hammer. 

When raising a circular disc or cover, always start at 
the outer edge, working inward in courses toward the 
center, gradually turning the disc as each blow is struck. 
A mistake often made by the student and workman is to 
strike too hard while raising the center, which results 
in the curve being of greater depth than required. 

In bumping curved moldings and raising the sections of 
a sheet metal ball, the raised flare often shows marks and 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 217 

dents made by the hammer. To obtain a smooth, round 
surface, the work is placed on the round head stake shown 
in Figure 99, and dressed evenly by means of the wooden 
mallet. 

Raising Pail Cover. — Having the pail cover E, Figure 
181, cut from metal, we are now ready for the raising 
process. First, hammer a circular depression 3% inches 
in diameter and % inch deep in the top of a lead block. 
Next, place the flat disc of metal over the depression in 
the block, in the position shown at 1, Figure 182, and 
with the raising hammer strike blows all around the edge 
of the circle, hammering out any wrinkles that may form 
during the operation. . This will raise the metal to the 
shape shown at 2. Then, with the cover in the position 
shown in 3, strike another course of blows around inside 
of the first course. Continue this process until the cover 
is brought to the shape shown at 4. The center is then 
raised by striking light blows with the hammer while 
holding the cover in the position shown at 5. This com- 
pletes the operation, as shown at 6. When raising covers 
made from light material, two or more of them can be 
placed together and raised at the same time. 

Turning Machine, — Figure 43 shows a turning ma- 
chine, better known to the sheet metal worker as the 
" thick edge/' These machines are furnished with rolls 
of different thickness, suitable for a large variety of work, 
and are well adapted for turning edges on heavy material, 
preparing the edges of flaring articles for wiring, edging 
pieced elbows, and making a depression or bead on the 
metal when marking the width of a flange to be turned on 
a cylinder or cover. 

Flanging the Cover. — After the cover has been ham- 
mered or raised into shape, it will be necessary to turn a 
wide edge or flange on the rim, to allow for joining the 
hoop and cover by means of a single seam shown at A, 
Figure 181. The first step in flanging is to set the gauge 



218 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



on the turning machine (Figure 43) about % inch from 
the edge of the upper roll. Next, place the edge of the 
cover against the gauge, bring down the upper roll, and 
revolve the work in the machine, making a depression 
or bead as shown at number 1, Figure 183. Then invert 
the cover and place the flange on top of the square stake, 
in the position shown at 2; after which the edge is ham- 
mered down evenly by means of the wooden mallet. This 




Figure 183. — Method of Flanging a Pail Cover. 

completes the operation, leaving a flat surface % inch 
wide around the edge of the cover as shown at number S. 
By means of the small burring machine (Figure 47), a 
%-inch edge is turned on the cover, as shown at number 4. 
The cover is now hooked over the edge burred on the hoop, 
and the seam closed down by means of the setting ham- 
mer. 

The ring for the cover is made from a piece of metal 
iy 2 inches long and y 2 inch in width, as shown at G, 
Figure 181. A single edge is turned on both sides, and 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



219 



the metal strip is formed into shape over the round end 
of the needle case stake (Figure 98). The ring is then 
soldered in position, which completes the construction of 
the cover. 

Forming Wire Bails. — The small malleable ears that 
are riveted to the pail, and the progressive steps in form- 
ing the wire bail are shown in Figure 184. When making 
bails for articles having straight sides, cut the wire in 
length equal to two and one-half times the diameter of 





Figure 184. — 1, 



2, 3, Steps in Forming a Wire Bail ; k, Malleable Ear 
to Receive Bail. 



the top, and form into shape on the forming rolls (Figures 
35, 36). Then place the wire in one of the grooves on 
the creasing stake (Figure 98), with the end extending 
about y± inch over the edge of stake ; bend the wire by 
means of the hammer to an angle of 45°, as shown at 
number 1, Figure 184. Next, move the wire forward on 



220 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the stake about % inch and bend to an angle of 90°, as 
shown at number 2. Both ends of the bail are now in- 
serted into the opening in the ears and bent into shape on 
the creasing stake, as shown at number 3, 




Figure 185. — Bending Hook on Wire Bail, Showing Use of Creasing 

Stake. 



An illustration showing this method of forming the 
hook on the end of a wire bail is seen in Figure 185. 
In Figure 99 is illustrated another type of creasing stake, 




Figure 186. — Method of Finding Position for Ears with the Steel 

Square. 

having a tapering horn on one end, which is very useful in 
forming small flaring articles. 

Placing the Ears. — When riveting kettle ears on a sheet 
metal article, circular in form, one of the ears is placed 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 221 

• 

directly over the seam where the two ends of the wire 
are joined together. The other is placed on the opposite 
side and the position located by measuring from the seam 
a distance equal to one-half the circumference of the 
body. This point is usually marked on the metal before it 
is formed in the rolls. 

If the position of the ear is not marked on the metal 
before being formed into shape, it can be found by the 
method shown in Figure 186. Let the circle M represent 
the top of the article. Place the steel square on the cir- 
cle in the position shown by the solid lines. "With the 
outer edge of the blade on the seam at a, and the heel 
touching the circle at c, mark the metal where the outer 
edge of the blade intersects the circle at 6. This gives 
the required point for riveting the ear. No measurements 
are necessary by this method. The square could be placed 
in the position shown by the dotted lines, obtaining the 
same result. 



CHAPTER X 

EADIAL LINE DEVELOPMENTS 

The problems in this chapter will teach in a simple, 
progressive manner the construction and method of de- 
veloping the patterns for tapering forms that have for 
a base the circle, or any of the regular polygons in which 
lines drawn from the corners terminate in an apex over 
the center of the base. 

Patterns for tapering forms are developed by the radial 
method, by means of radial lines converging to a common 
center. "When developing such patterns, first draw an 
elevation showing the true length of the axis, and the true 
length of the radius with which to describe the .stretch- 
out arc of the pattern. The stretch-out must be described 
with a radius equal to the length of the true edge of the 
solid, as shown by AC, Figure 187. Then a plan view 
must be drawn from which the length of the stretch-out 
can be obtained, as shown by DEFG in Figure 187. 

The simplest forms of tapering article are the cone and 
pyramid, and these are applied in the construction of 
chimney caps, ventilator heads, pitched covers, etc. 

The sheet metal worker is frequently required to con- 
struct an article in the form of a frustum, or plane sec- 
tion of a cone, and the method used in developing the pat- 
tern is simply to develop a pattern for the entire cone 
and then cut off the upper portion, leaving the desired 
frustum. 

The bodies of well-known tapering articles, such as the 
furnace hood, funnel, dipper, coffee pot, strainer, bucket, 
pan, etc., are of this character, and when developing their 

222 



H^rl 




Figure 187. — Radial Method of Developing Pattern for a Right Cone. 



224 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

patterns they are treated as the frustums of cones, as 
referred to above. 

Pattern for Cone and Frustum. — In Figure 187 is 
shown the method of developing the pattern for a right 
cone, which contains the principles applicable to all 
frustums of pyramids and cones. 

Draw the elevation ABC. Then describe a circle to 
represent a plan view of the base as shown by DEFG. 
Divide one-half of the outline of the base in the plan into 
a number of equal parts as shown by the figures 1 to 7 ; 
from the apex A of the cone as center, with a radius equal 
to the true length of the slant height of the cone as shown 
by AC, describe the stretch-out arc CH. On any con- 
venient point on the stretch-out locate point 1 and draw 
a line from 1 to A. 

Then set dividers equal to the length of one of the 
spaces in the plan, and starting at point 1> mark off spaces 
equal to twice the number of those on the plan as shown 
by 1-7-1, which will make the stretch-out equal in length 
to the circumference of the base of the cone. From the 
end point thus located draw a line to the apex A, and 
then add an allowance for seaming. This completes the 
pattern for the right cone. When adding allowances for 
seaming flaring work, care should be taken that the added 
lines are drawn parallel to the edge lines of the net pat- 
tern. 

When the frustum of a cone is desired as shown by 
mnBC, Figure 187, then the diameter of the small end 
of the frustum will be equal to mn, and the radius to de- 
scribe the upper edge of the pattern will be equal to An. 
With A as center and an as radius, describe the arc op 
as shown by the dotted line. Then op 1-7-1 will be the 
pattern for the frustum of the cone. 

Pattern for a Square Pyramid. — This development is 
shown in Figure 188 and the same principles used in de- 
veloping the pattern for a conical-shaped object are ap- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 225 




B\ Elevation 
-4 




Figure 188, — Pattern for a Square Pyramid. 



;226 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

plicable to the developments of pyramids having a base 
with any number of sides. In this case we have a square 
pyramid. 

Draw the elevation as shown by ABC and the plan 
view as shown by 1-2-3-4, according to the dimensions 
given in the figure. Next draw the two diagonal lines 
1-3 and 2-4, intersecting in the center at m. When the 
plan view is placed in the position as shown, the line AC 
in the elevation represents the true length of one of the 
corners of the pyramid. With A as center and AC as 
radius the stretch-out arc is described in the same manner 
as in the case of the cone in the preceding problem. After 
setting the dividers to the width of one side of the base, 
as 1-2 in the plan, starting at 1, mark off on the stretch- 
out line spaces equal to 1-2-3-4-1 in plan; connect these 
points by straight lines as shown, and draw lines from 
each point to the apex A, completing the develop- 
ment. 

Pattern for a Hexagonal Pyramid. — The development 
of this problem, as shown in Figure 189, does not differ 
from that of the preceding problem, except that the line 
AD in the elevation is not the correct radius with which 
to strike the stretch-out arc, and it is therefore necessary 
to draw a line that will represent the true length in the 
elevation. This is found as follows : 

First draw the plan and elevation according to the 
dimensions given in the drawing. From the center m 
draw the line m-n at right angles to 6-1 in the plan. 
From m as center with the radius m-6 describe an arc 
intersecting line m-n at a. From a erect the perpendic- 
ular line intersecting the base line BD of the elevation ex- 
tended at g. From g draw a line to the apex A, which 
will be the true length of m-6 in the plan, and is also 
the radius with which to describe the stretch-out arc. 
With this radius and the apex A as center, describe the 
stretch-out line. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



227 



After setting the dividers to the width of one of the 
sides of the base which is shown in the plan, mark off six 

5 ~1 4- 




Figure 189. — Pattern for a Hexagonal Pyramid. 

spaces on the stretch-out arc, and complete the pattern in 
the same manner as shown in the preceding problem. 



228 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Patterns for these problems should be developed, and 
models made from sheet metal, thus giving practice in 
construction. These models will at once show any error 
in the pattern which might otherwise be overlooked. 

Rectangular Pitched Cover, — Sheet metal workers are 
frequently required to construct ornaments in cornice 
work, a hood, canopy, or a cover for an article square or 
rectangular in form. These articles are usually made in 
the form of a square or rectangular pyramid having a 
short height or rise to the apex. 

Patterns for work of this kind are usually laid out 
directly on the metal by a short method in which no ele- 
vation is required, as the true length of the radius for 
describing the stretch-out arc is found in the plan. Fig- 
ure 190 shows the development of a pattern for a rectang- 
ular pitched cover by this method. 

The half elevation and section can be omitted. They 
ivere drawn in this case to show the construction and 
method of connecting the hoop B to the cover shown at 
A. The hoop is a strip of metal of the required width, 
having a single hem on the lower edge and an edge turned 
to a right angle on the upper side for seaming, as shown 
in the section. 

The length, width and height of cover being known, 
first draw a plan to the required size, as shown by 1-2-3-4. 
Next draw the diagonal lines intersecting in the center 
at m, which lines represent the hips of the pitched cover 
in plan. Bisect the line 1-2 and locate the point x, then 
draw a line from x to the center m, showing the position 
of the seam. Before describing the stretch-out arc for 
the pattern, find the true length of one of the hip lines in 
the plan and use that dimension as the radius for de- 
scribing the stretch-out. 

To find the radius, draw the line m-o at right angles to 
the hip line m-3 in the plan. The height of the cover as 
shown by ad in the elevation is marked on the line m-o at 




Figure 190. — Pattern for a Rectangular Pitched Cover. 



.230 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

n. Now draw a line from n to 3; then n-S is the true 
length of the line m-3 in the plan and is the radius for 
describing the stretch-out. 

After setting the dividers equal to n-3 in plan, with g 
as center describe a circle on the metal. Starting at any 
convenient point on the circle, as point 3, space off the 
length of the end and sides of the cover as shown by 
1-2-3 A in the pattern. From 1-2 as centers, with a radius 
equal to one-half the width of the coyer as shown by 1-x 
in the plan, describe short arcs on the pattern as shown. 
The true length of the seam line is shown by the dotted 
line g-f in the pattern. Then with g-f as radius and g as 
center describe arcs at x. Connect all points by straight 
lines and draw lines from them to the center g. This com- 
pletes the net pattern, to which allowances for seaming 
-are added as shown. 

After the pattern has been cut from metal, notch the 
corners and turn edges on the folder. The pattern is 
formed by placing the metal on the hatchet stake and 
bending on the hip lines to the required angle. The lap 
:seam is riveted or soldered, and the hoop is attached to 
the cover as shown at 6 in the elevation. The edge is then 
closed down by means of the setting hammer, completing 
the construction. 

Construction of a Flaring Pan. — In Figure 191 is 
shown a perspective view of a flaring pan, the form of 
which is seen to be the part or frustum of a cone. It is 
to be made of IC bright tin, according to the following 
dimensions : 

Diameter of top, 6% inches. 
Diameter of bottom, 4% inches. 
Height, 2% inches. 

A No. 12 wire is inclosed in the top edge and the bottom 
is double seamed to the body. The body is made in two 
pieces cut from a 10x14 sheet of tin. The number of 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 231 

pieces in which the body of an article in this form is made 
I will depend upon its size and the material from which 
it is to be constructed. 

In Figure 192 is shown a half elevation, also a half 
sectional view and the method of obtaining the pattern 
for a flaring pan made in two pieces. In developing the 
pattern, first draw the center line GH, upon which place 
the height of the pan, as shown by AD. Through these 
points draw lines at right angles to the center line. Qn 




Figure 191. — Flaring Pan, Perspective View. 

either side of the center line GH, from the points AD, 
place the half diameters AB of the top and CD of the 
bottom. Then ABCD shows the half elevation, while 
AFDE shows the half sectional view. Draw lines con- 
necting BC and EF and extend them until they meet the 
center line at K , which is the center point with which to 
describe the pattern. With CD as radius and D as cen- 
ter, describe the quarter circle CM, and divide it into a 
number of equal spaces, as show T n by the figures 1 to 7. 
This quarter circle represents a one-quarter plan of the 
bottom of the pan. 

The pattern is developed as follows : With K as cen- 
ter and the radii equal to KB and KC, draw the arcs 
NO and RS as shown.. From N draw a line to the apex 
K, and starting from the point R, space off on the arc RS 



232 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the stretch-out of twice the number of spaces contained in 
the quarter plan, as shown by the figures 1-7-1 on the 
arc RS. From K draw a line through 8, extending it 
until it intersects the arc NO at 0. Add laps for seam- 
ing and wiring, as shown by the dotted lines. This com- 
pletes the half pattern for the pan. 

A one-half elevation and a quarter plan of the top or 
bottom is all that is required to find the stretch-out and 

Half Elevation 
B 




Figure 192. — Development of Pattern for a Flaring Pan. 

Tadius for describing the pattern for the frustum of a 
cone. The allowances for seaming and wiring are made 
in the same manner as for the straight work described in 
previous chapters. 

Wiring Flaring Articles. — Articles in the form of a 
irustum of a cone, such as a coffee pot or liquid measure, 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 233 

which have a wire inserted in the edge of the small end 
or top of the body, are wired while in the flat before be- 
ing formed into shape ; while flaring articles such as pails, 
pans, etc., having a wire inclosed in the large end, are 
wired after the body has been formed up and seamed to- 
gether. A flaring article is to be wired always before 
seaming the bottom to the body. 

Turning a Wire Edge. — Having completed the pattern 
for the one quart pan, Figure 192, transfer it to metal 
and cut two pieces from a sheet of 10x14" bright tin. 
Notch the upper corners for wiring and the lower corners 
for seaming, as described in Chapter VIII. Place the 
two pieces together and form them into a semicircle on 




Figure 193. — Turning a Wire Edge on the Folding Machine. 

the forming rolls (Figs. 35, 36). Next, turn the edge 
for the side seams on the folding machine (Figure 15), 
and then groove the seams and close them down by means 
of the mallet on the mandrel stake. 

The next step will be to turn the edge for the wire. 
This is done on the small turning machine (Figure 43), 
in the following manner : 

Having made an allowance of ^4 inch to the edge of 
the pattern for a No. 12 wire, set the gauge on the machine 
!/4 inch from the center of the depression in the lower roll. 
Then placing the upper edge of the pan against the gauge, 
bring down the upper roll and revolve the work in the 
machine, making a deep depression or bead on the metal. 



234 



SHEET METAL, WORKERS' MANUAL 



Kun the work through the machine several times, gradual- 
ly raising the work until the edge is turned to the re- 
quired angle, which will bring the side of the pan to a ver- 
tical position, almost touching the upper roll. 

When turning a wire edge on the turning machine, it 
is often a difficult matter to keep the work circular in 
form ; this difficulty can be overcome by pulling the work 
and rounding it into shape as it passes through the ma- 
chine. 

The edging operation and the position of the workman 
while operating the machine is shown in Figure 193. 




Figure 194. — Wiring a Flaring Article, Showing Correct Position of 

the Hands. 



Use of Wiring Machine. — After turning the edge for 
wire, we are ready for the wiring process, which is the 
aame as that described in Chapter VII, except that the 
wire is formed in the rolls before being inclosed in the 
edge of the article. First cut a piece of wire about y 2 
inch longer than the circumference of the top of the pan 
and form it circular in shape on the forming rolls (Fig- 
ures 35, 36). Then placing one end of the wire at the 
side of a vertical seam and under the wire edge, close 
the metal over the wire for a short distance from the 
end by means of the hammer and the horn on the standard 
of the machine, or some suitable stake. 



SHEET METAL WORK ANB PATTERN DRAFTING 235 

After setting the gauge on the wiring machine (Figure 
45) to the required width, run the work through the rolls, 
, wiring the top about three-fourths of its circumference. 
By stopping the operation at this point, the end of the 
wire can be held away from the edge of the metal and 
easily cut off to the required length by means of the 
wire cutters. The ends of the wire should fit close to- 
gether. The work is then run through the rolls, complet- 
ing the operation. In Figure 194 is shown a wiring ma- 
chine and the correct position of the hands when wiring 
a flaring article. 

The bottom is now double seamed to the body in the 
same manner as the bottom for the covered pail, and the 
process is fully described in Chapter IX. Using rosin 
as a flux, solder the bottom and the side seams on the in- 
side of the pan, which completes the construction of the 
problem. 

DIMENSIONS OF FLARING PANS 

It is important that the student should know something 
of the standard sizes and dimensions of flaring pans that 
can be constructed with the least possible waste of ma- 
terial. For this purpose the following schedule of sizes 
and dimensions is presented: 





Diameter 


Diameter 


Height 


Size 


of Top 


of Bottom 


(Inches) 


1 Pint 


5% 


4 


2% 


1 Quart 


614 


4% 


2% 


3 Pint 


8% 


6% 


21/2 


2 Quart 


8% 


6% 


3% 


6 Quart 


12% 


9 


4 



10 Quart 1434 9% 4% 

Making a Funnel. — A useful article in the form of a 
frustum of a cone is the common funnel shown in Figure 
195. It is to be made from bright tin or No. 28 galvanized 
iron, having a No. 12 wire inclosed in the upper edge. 



236 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

The vertical height is 3% inches. The diameter of the 
top is 5 inches, and the lower opening in the body meas- 
ures one inch in diameter. The spout is 2 inches long, 
having a %-inch outlet, the seam being lapped and 
soldered. The body is made in one piece, having a % inch 
grooved seam on the side. 

The body and spout are merely two frustums of cones 
and the patterns are developed in a similar manner by 
the radial method as shown in Figure 196. In this fig- 
ure, the full elevation is drawn, but in actual practice 




Figure 195. — Common Funnel, in Which Both Body and Spout Are 
Frustums of Cones. 

much extra work can be avoided by drawing only one-half 
of the elevation, as shown, on one side of the center line 
AB. This is done to simplify the work and to avoid the 
drawing of unnecessary lines. To develop the patterns, 
extend the side lines of the body and spout until they in- 
tersect the center line at M and G. For the pattern for 
the body proceed as follows : 

"With g as center and radii equal to GF and GE, de- 
scribe the arcs ee and // of the pattern. On the arc ee 
step off four times the number of spaces contained in the 
quarter plan C ; then draw lines to the center g. Add 
laps for seaming and wiring. 

The pattern for the spout is developed in a similar 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



237 



manner, with a lap added to the upper edge and side for 
soldering. 

After the pattern has been cut from metal, notch the 
corners, and turn the edge for the side seam on the fold- 
ing machine. When the outline of the pattern is a semi- 




Pattern for Spoof f 



Figure 196. — Patterns for Funnel Body and Spout.. Developed by the 
Radial Method. 



circle or larger, place the work in the folder and bend 
the edge to a right angle, then finish the operation by 
means of the mallet on the hatchet stake. The patterns 
are now formed on the blowhorn stake, after which the 
side seam of the body is grooved and the upper edge is 
wired in the same manner as described in the preceding 



238 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



problem. The spout is slipped over the lower end of the 
funnel and soldered in position, as shown at h. 

Flaring Liquid Measure. — Another application of the 
processes of wiring and seaming of flaring articles is the 
construction of flaring measures. These measures are 
usually made from bright tin, having & wire inclosed in 
the upper edge, and the bottom double seamed to the 
body. 

When constructing measures of small size, the upper 
edge of the lip and side edges of the handle are usually 
hemmed, in the same manner as the one-quart lipped 
measure described in Chapter VIII. For the larger 
measures, greater strength is obtained by wiring these 
edges. As they must hold a given quantity when com- 
pleted, the greatest accuracy is required in developing 
the patterns and in making the allowances for wiring and 
seaming. 

DIMENSIONS OF FLARING MEASURES 

While there are various proportions used by different 
workmen and for different purposes, the following 
schedule is one that is commonly used by sheet metal 
workers in commercial shops. The table presented gives 
the height, bottom and top diameters for flaring liquid 
measures from % pint to 5 gallons. 





Top 


Botton 


I 




Size 


Diameter Diameter Height 


% Pint 


2^ in. 2V4 in. 2% in. 


y 2 Pint 


2i/ 4 ' 


2i/ 2 ' 


23/ 8 ' 




1 Pint 


911 > 
^16 


3 ' 


4 T % ' 




1 Quart 


3% ' 


4 ' 


°1Q 




i/ 2 Gallon 


3% ' 


' ^ 3_ » 


m ' 




1 " 


5 ' 


6% ' 


87/ 8 ' 




2 '•' 


6% ' 


83/ 4 ' 


93/ 4 ' 




3 " 


8 ' 


ioy 2 ' 


ioy 4 ' 




4 " 


m ' 


n ' 


12i 5 e ' 




5 " 


9y 2 ' 


12y 2 ' 


We ' 





SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



239 



One-Half Gallon Measure. — Assuming that a one-half 
gallon measure is to be made from IX bright tin, the pat- 
tern for the body is developed by the radial method, as 




Figure 197. — Patterns for One-Half Gallon Measure, with Lip. 



described in preceding problems. Using the dimensions; 
given in the foregoing table, first draw the elevation and 
half plan as shown by ABC in Figure 197. Next lay out 



240 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the pattern for the body in the usual manner and add al- 
lowances for wiring and seaming, as shown by the part 
pattern D. The pattern E for the lip is laid out by the 
short method shown in Figure 174, an allowance for a No. 
14 wire being added to the upper edge. The pattern for 
the handle is shown at F. The length of this pattern is 
found by spacing the outline of the handle, as shown by 
abc in the elevation ; to this dimension add laps at each 
end for soldering. 

The handle is strengthened by inclosing a No. 13 wire 
in the side edges. After the patterns have been cut from 
metal, notch the corners, and turn edges on the folding 
machine (Figure 15) for wiring the handle and seaming 
the body. The edge for wire is now turned on the upper 
edge of the body and lip by means of the small turning 
machine (Figure 43), and wired in the usual manner on 
the wiring machine (Figure 45). 

Next form the body, lip and handle in the forming rolls 
(Figures 35, 36), but do not place the wired edges in the 
grooves on one end of the rolls when passing the work 
through the machine. The bottom is double-seamed to 
the body, the lip and handle soldered in position, com- 
pleting the problem. 

Flaring articles in the form of a frustum of a cone, 
such as measures, pans, tapering pipes, etc., can be easily 
shaped on the forming rolls. 



CHAPTER XI 

PITCHED COVEES AND FLAEING AETICLES 

The problems in this chapter are some of the many 
articles made by the sheet metal worker in which the 
patterns are developed by the radial method described in 
Chapter X. 

In Figure 198 is shown a sheet metal can, cylindrical in 
form, with a pitched cover inclosing the top. These cans 




Figure 198. — Sheet Metal Waste Can with Pitched Cover. 



are made from tin and galvanized iron, in a variety of 
sizes and for different purposes. The pitch of the cover 
can be varied at the pleasure of the workman. 

The rim of the cover can also be made flaring in shape 
and fitted to the inside of the article in the same manner 
as the one-quart pail cover shown in Figure 181. As the 
sheet metal worker is often required to construct cans and 
tanks that will hold a given quantity, the following table 

241 



242 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

is presented, giving the size, diameter, and height for 
cans from 1 to 200 gallons in capacity. 

DIMENSIONS OF CANS AND TANKS 



Gallon 


Diameter 


Height 


1 


6% 


6% 


-2 


8% 


8%- 


3 


9 


11% 


5 


10% 


13% 


6 


. 11% 


13% 


-8 


13% 


13% 


10 


13% 


16% 


15 


15% 


19 


20 


17%- 


19% 


20 


16 


23 


25 


18 


23 


30 


18% 


26% 


35 


18% : 


30% 


40 


18% 


34 


45 


19% 


35 


50 


20% 


35 


55 


21% • 


36 


60 


22 


37 


65 


22% 


.: 38 


70 


23 


40 


75 


23% 


40 


80 


24% 


40 


85 


25 


40 


90 


24% 


45 


95 


25 


45 . 


100 


20 


45 


125 


27% 


50 


150 


29 


52% 


175 


30 


57% 


200 


303/ 4 


64 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



243 



The waste can, Figure 198, shows the pitched cover 
having a straight rim l 1 /^ inches wide fitted over the out- 
side of the body. This style of cover is generally used 
when constructing flour cans and receptacles for waste 
material of various kinds. The body of the can is 12 
inches in diameter. The height is 14 inches. The ma- 



Half Section 



Half Elevation 





Figure 199. — 'Development of Pattern for Pitched Cover : s 3 Section of 
Steel Square and Method of Use in Laying Out Pattern. 



terial used is No. 26 galvanized iron and a No. 8 wire is 
inclosed in its upper edge. An edge *4 inch in width is 
used for the grooved side seam, and the bottom is attached 
to the body by a double seam in the usual way. The body 
is strengthened by several ogee beads. Tinned malleable 
iron handles are placed in position on the side as shown 
in the illustration. 

Pattern for a Pitched Cover. — Figure 199 shows the 
method of obtaining the pattern for the pitched cover, 



244 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

which is in the form of a complete cone and is made in 
two pieces. First, draw the half elevation as shown by 
ABC. Make AB equal to the altitude and BC equal to 
one-half the diameter of the cover. With BC as radius 
and H as center, describe the arc FG; then HFG will 
represent a one-quarter plan view of the cover, "With 
m as center and radius equal to AC, describe the arc no 
of the half pattern K. On this arc, step off twice the 
number of spaces contained in the one-quarter plan, then 
draw lines from no to m, and add laps for seaming, as 
shown. 

After the edges have been turned on the bar folder, 
the two pieces are formed by hand and joined together 
with a grooved seam. The cover is now flanged and 
seamed to the rim, as shown at E. These operations are 
fully described in Chapter IX. The rim of the cover is 
simply a circular band of metal, having the lower edge 
wired and the upper edge burred, as shown at D and E, 
Figure 199. 

Use of Steel Square. — Although the drawings for this 
problem are to be made on the drawing board, in actual 
practice many workmen lay out the pattern by means 
of the steel square and dividers directly upon the sheet 
metal, without the use of any drawing. This short method 
can be used for developing the patterns for cones and 
pitched covers of any diameter or height. 

Assuming that a pitched cover 14 inches in diameter 
and 3 inches high is to be made in two pieces, to obtain 
the pattern by this method proceed as follows : At S in 
Figure 199 is shown the section of a steel square. Place 
one point of the dividers on the vertical arm of the 
square at 3, which is the height of the cover, and the 
other point at 7, which is one-half the diameter; the dis- 
tance shown by the line mn will be the true radius with 
which to describe the stretch-out arc of the pattern. 
With a radius equal to 3-7, and with any point, as m in 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



245 



the half pattern, as center, describe the arc no. To find 
the length of the stretch-out of the full pattern, multiply 
the diameter 14 by 3.1416, which will equal 44 inches. Set 
the points of the dividers 1 inch apart, and step off 22 
spaces on the arc no. Draw lines from n to m and o to 



Half Elevation 




Wired Edge 
Bo/f 



Figure 200. — Half Elevation and Details of Round Ventilator Head. 



m, and add laps for seaming, which will complete the one- 
half pattern for the cover. 

Round Ventilator Head. — A ventilator head which is 
used for a variety of purposes, and with equal efficiency 
as the top for a smoke jack or a ventilator cap, is shown 
in Figure 200. The proportions are varied somewhat by 



246 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

different workmen. The rule usually employed is to 
make the upper hood A and the lower flange C twice the 
diameter of the pipe D. The supports E and F are gen- 
erally made from band iron, riveted to the hood and pipe 
as shown in the drawing. The straight flange B is merely 
a band of metal, having the lower edge wired and the 
upper edge attached to the top in a similar manner as the 
rim of the pitched cover described in this chapter. 

The drawing, Figure 200, is made to a scale of 3 inches 
to the foot, and represents a ventilator having a 6-inch 




Figure 201. — Oblong Flaring Pan with Semicircular Ends. 

opening. The half -section shows the construction and 
method of assembling the different parts. 

To construct the ventilator, first draw the elevation full 
size, making it four times larger than the scaled drawing. 
The lower flange B has an inclination of 45° and the 
pitch of the upper hood A is at an angle of 30°. Since 
the upper hood is simply a flat cone, and the lower flange 
the frustum of a cone, the development of their patterns 
needs no explanation, as the method has been fully de- 
scribed in Chapter X. 

Flaring Oblong Articles with Semicircular Ends. — 
Figure 201 shows a finished view of a flaring oblong pan 
with semicircular ends. The body is made in two pieces, 
having a wire inclosed in the top edge and the bottom 
double seamed in the usual manner. Articles of this 
form are made in various sizes and for different purposes. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 247 



Elevafion 




Seam 
Figure 202. — Pattern for Oblong Flaring Pan with Semicircular Ends. 



248 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

The dimensions of the pan shown in the illustration are 
as follows : Top 11x15 inches, bottom 8x12 inches, ver- 
tical height 4*4 inches. The method of developing the 
pattern is shown in Figure 202. 

Draw the elevation ABC J) according to the given di- 
mensions ; next, draw the plan of the top and bottom, the 
semicircular ends being struck from the centers o and o, 
with the radii oF and oG equal to one-half the width of 
the top andtbottom. Divide the outer arc into a con- 
venient number of equal spaces, as shown from 1 to 11. 
From o erect the perpendicular line orn, then extend the 




Figure 203. — Oblong Flaring Pan with Quarter-Circle Corners. 

line BC in the elevation until it intersects the line om at 
E, which is the center with which to describe the arcs of 
the pattern. With E as center and radii equal to EB and 
EC, describe the arcs da and ef. Now, from any point on 
the outer arc, draw a line from e to the center E. Start- 
ing at point 1, step off the stretch-out of the pattern, 
making it equal in length to the semicircle, as shown from 
1 to 11 in the plan. From point 11, draw a line to the 
center E, intersecting the lower arc at a. Then at right 
angles to the line 11a draw the lines 11-12 and ab, making 
them equal to the straight side of the plan, as shown by 
the figures 11 and 12 in the plan. 

This completes the pattern, with the exception of the 
allowances for seaming and wiring. Since these al- 
lowances differ in no way from those of preceding prob- 




-12' 



Elevation 



a Is 



p 
—jo"— 



Seam 



r 



r 



Plan 



4^ 
J 



c b 



_Seam 




\ 



NJ 



Half Paffern 
for Body 




Figure 204. — Pattern for Oblong Flaring Pan with Quarter-Circle 

Corners. 



250 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

lems, they need no further explanation. The pattern for 
the bottom is laid out by merely adding an allowance for 
double seaming to the outline of the bottom shown in the 
plan view. 

Oblong Article with Quarter-Circle Corners. — Another 
application of the processes of double seaming and wiring 
is the construction of a flaring article having straight 
sides and quarter-circle corners. Since problems of this 
form frequently occur in the sheet metal trades, the con- 
struction and method of developing the patterns should 
be thoroughly mastered by the student and workman. 
The common form of this article is shown in Figure 203. 
The body is made in two pieces ; the top edge is wired and 
the bottom attached by a double seam. The method of ob- 
taining the pattern is shown in Figure 204. 

First draw the plan and elevation in accordance with 
the dimensions shown on the drawing. The quarter-cir- 
cle corners of the top and bottom are struck from the four 
centers shown by a in the plan, the radius of the arcs for 
the corners of the bottom, as shown by aj, being iy 2 
inches- Draw the perpendicular lines am and an, then 
extend the side AD of the elevation until it intersects the 
line am in the point E, which gives the height of the 
cones, portions of whose frustums are to form the corners 
of the finished article. Next, by the line Fb, divide the 
plan into two equal parts, then divide one of the outer 
quarter-circles into a convenient number of equal parts, 
as shown by the figures 1 to 5. 

To lay out the half -pattern for the body, first draw the 
line HI equal in length to HI in the plan, and at right 
angles to this line draw the lines He and le, equal in 
length to AE in the elevation. Make HJ and IK equal 
to the slant height of the side shown by AD in elevation. 
Then with e and e as centers and radii equal to eK and 
el, describe the arcs 1-5 and Ku, also the arcs HG and 
Jt. Starting at points H and 1, step off the stretch-out 




Figure 205. — Method of Obtaining Pattern for Frustum of Right Cone. 



252 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

of the arcs of the pattern, making 1-5 and HG equal in 
length to the quarter-circle shown in the plan by the fig- 
ures 1 to 5. 

From points 5 and G, draw lines to the centers e and a, 
and at right angles to these lines, draw the lines GF and 
td on the left, and 5b and uc on the right, equal in length 
to one-half the straight end of the pan, shown by FG in 
the plan. Connect these points and add laps for wiring 
and seaming. The pattern for the bottom is found by 
merely adding to the outline of the bottom shown in the 
plan, the allowance required for the double seam. 

Pattern for Frustum of Bight Cone. — The problems in 
radial developments up to this point have been what we 
might call articles in the form of a cone and the frustum 
of a cone having the upper and lower bases parallel or in 
the same plane. When constructing flaring roof collars, 
gutter outlets, and various articles in the form of a cone 
having the upper or lower end cut by a plane other than 
parallel to its base, the development is somewhat different. 

Figure 205 shows the method of developing the pattern 
for the frustum of a right cone cut by the plane rep- 
resented by the line D9. First draw the elevation of the 
cone ABC, and directly below it the plan view F. As 
both halves of the cone are symmetrical, it will be neces- 
sary to divide only one-half of the outline of the plan F 
into equal spaces, as shown by the figures 1 to 9. Next 
represent the cutting plane D9 by a line drawn at an 
angle of 45° with the base line BC, making the point D 
one inch from B. From the various points in the plan 
erect lines intersecting the base of the cone from 1 to 9. 
From these points on the base line, draw radial lines to 
the apex A, intersecting the line D9 as shown. From 
these points of intersection on the line D9, and at right 
angles to the axis line AG, draw lines as shown intersect- 
ing the side of the cone AC. 

Then using A as center with i(J as radius, describe 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



253 



the stretch-out arc. From 1, draw a line to the apex A, 
and starting from point 1, step off on the arc twice the 
number of spaces shown in the plan F, by the figures 
1-9-1. From these points draw radial lines to the apex 
A. Then, using A as center, with radii equal to the var- 
ious points which are shown in their true length on the 



f/ei/a/ion 




Figure 206. — Half Plan and Elevation of a Flaring Roof Collar. 



line AC, draw arcs intersecting similar numbered radial 
lines in the pattern. The irregular curve is now traced 
through points thus obtained, which completes the de- 
sired development. 

Flaring Roof Collar. — The principles used in develop- 
ing the pattern for the intersected cone shown in Fig- 



254 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

ure 205 are applicable, no matter at what angle or point 
the bases of the cone are intersected- The workman will 
apply these principles in developing the pattern for a 
flaring roof collar shown by EFGH in Figure 206. A 
roof collar of this kind is commonly used by plumbers and 
sheet metal workers to secure a watertight joint when 
flashing around stacks and vent pipes that extend through 
the pitched roof of a building. 

First, draw the center line AB and then draw the roof 
line MN at an angle of 30°. Next draw the outline of the 
vertical pipe shown by CDTU, and make the upper base 
of the collar EF at any convenient distance from the roof 
line. At a proper angle, draw the side lines of the collar 
through the points EF extended until they meet at the 
apex J. Next draw the horizontal line HK, and extend 
the side line JG, intersecting the line HK at K, as shown 
by the dotted lines. Then JKH will represent a right 
cone which is cut off on the lines EF and GH. The pat- 
tern is now developed in the same manner as the previous 
problem. 



CHAPTER XII 

PAKALLEL LINE DEVELOPMENT 

Practical workshop problems, such as arise in every 
day practice, in which the patterns are developed by 
means of parallel lines, will now be presented. This 
method is used in laying out patterns for elbows, tee 
joints, roof gutters, skylights, cornices, etc. All of" the 
problems should be carefully studied and the patterns 
drawn accurately. Unless the drawings are exact, they 
are of no value. There are certain fixed principles that 
apply to developments by this method, and the following 
rules should be carefully observed by the student and 
workman : 

1. A plan and elevation must first be drawn, show- 
ing the article in a right position, in which the parallel 
lines of the solid are shown in their true length. 

2. The pattern is always obtained from a right view 
of the article in which the line of joint or intersection is 
shown* 

3. A stretch-out, or girth line, is always drawn at right 
angles to the parallel lines of the articles, upon which is 
placed each space contained in the section or plan view. 

4. Measuring lines are always drawn at right angles 
to the stretch-out line of the pattern. 

5. Lines drawn from the points of intersection on the 
miter line in the right view, intersecting similarly num- 
bered lines on the stretch-out, will give the desired pat- 
tern. 

Two-Pieced Elbow.- — Figure 207 demonstrates the 
method of developing the patterns for a two-pieced 90° 
elbow. 

255 



256 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



First draw the elevation ABODE 7. Then below the 
elevation describe a circle representing the profile or 
plan, shown at F. As each half of the pattern is sym- 
metrical, draw a line through the plan F, and divide the 
upper half of the circle into a number of equal parts, as 
shown from 1 to 7. 

From these points perpendicular lines are drawn in- 
tersecting the miter line C-7 as indicated. Then at right 




Figure 207. — Patterns for Two-Pieced 90° Elbow. 



angles to the lower arm of the elbow E-7, draw the „ 
stretch-out line OH , and upon this line step off twice the 
number of spaces indicated in the plan, which will give 
the circumference of the elbow, as shown by the points 
1-7-1 on the line OH. From these points and at a right 
angle to OH, measuring lines are erected and intersected 
by like numbered lines drawn at a right angle to the 
cylinder from similar numbered points of intersection on 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 257 

the miter line C-7 in the elevation. A line traced through 
points thus obtained will be the pattern for the lower arm 
of the elbow, as shown by GHLKJ. 

The manner of laying out the pattern for the upper 
arm of the elbow may need some explanation. The ir- 
regular curve traced through the points of the pattern 
is the only one required for both pieces of the elbow. 
The stretch-out of both pieces being of equal length, ex- 
tend the outer lines of the pattern to M and N as pointed 




Figure 208. — Round Conductor Elbow. 

out, and make JM and LN equal in length to the long 
side of the upper arm as shown by A-7 in the elevation. 
Draw a line from M to N; then JKLNM will be the pat- 
tern for the upper arm of a two-pieced elbow- Allow- 
ances for seaming or riveting must be added as indicated. 
This method of development is applicable to any pieced 
elbow, no matter what angle is required. 

Conductor Elbow. — An article often required to be 
made up from tin plate, sheet copper, and galvanized iron y 
is a round conductor elbow, shown in Figure 208. It 
is usually made at other than a right angle, to allow for 
drainage purposes. 



258 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Figure 209 shows the elevation and plan view of a two- 
pieced conductor elbow, the circle representing the plan 
or profile being 3 inches in diameter. Draw the elevation 
.and let DEF be the required angle. The miter line of a 



Elevation 




Figure 209. — Elevation and Plan of Two-Pieced Conductor Elbow. 



two-pieced elbow is always found by bisecting the angle 
and is obtained as follows : 

With E as center and any convenient radius describe 
the arc mn. "With a slightly larger radius and m and n 
as centers, describe two arcs, intersecting at H. Then 
draw the line HB, which is the bisector of the angle DEF, 
and EB is the required miter line of the elbow. 

The upper half of the plan is spaced into a number of 
equal parts, and from these points vertical lines are 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



259- 



drawn, intersecting the miter line EB in the elevation. 
The stretch-out line as shown by the line ab, is now drawn 
at right angles to the lower arm of the elbow, and the 
patterns for both arms are laid out in the same manner 
as the 90° elbow. This development is shown fully in 
Figure 207 and the workman should have no trouble in 
completing the problem. 

Pipe and Roof Flange. — A roof flange used by plumb- 
ers and sheet metal workers when flashing around vent 




Figure 210. — Pipe and Roof Flange. 



pipes and stacks that come through the slanting sides 
of a roof, is shown in Figure 210. As may be seen by 
the illustration, the roof flange is merely a flat plate of 
metal which is seamed to a cylinder or pipe having one 
end cut at an angle equal to the pitch of the roof. 

Figure 211 shows the method of developing the pat- 
tern for the pipe and the opening in the roof plate. First 
draw the roof line BC at an angle of 45°, which will 
show the pitch of the roof. Then draw a side view of the 



260 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL. 




Figure 211. — Method of Obtaining Pattern for Pipe and Opening in 

Roof Plate. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 261 

pipe A and its section, indicated by the circle at E. One 
half of the circle is divided into a convenient number of 
equal parts, and from these points parallel lines are 
drawn, intersecting the roof line BC as shown- 

We are now ready to develop the pattern for the pipe 
A y which is a cylinder having one end cut at an angle of 
45°. Draw the stretch-out line ab at right angles to the 
vertical side of the pipe, and obtain the pattern in a 
manner similar to the development of the lower arm 
of the two-pieced elbow shown in Figure 207. 

The pattern for the opening in the roof plate is de- 
veloped in the following manner : 

First draw lines at right angles to the roof BC from 
the points 1 to 7. Then at right angles to these lines 




Figure 212. — Common Hand Scoop. 

draw the line GH through the center of the roof plate 
D. On the line GH place half of section E as shown by 
F, and divide the half circle into the same number of 
equal spaces to correspond to the half -section E. From 
these points in F draw lines parallel to GH, intersecting 
similar numbered lines that have been drawn from the 
points on the line BC. A line traced through the points 
thus obtained will be the pattern for the opening in the 
roof plate. 

Hand Scoop. — A typical hand scoop, commonly used, 
is represented in Figure 212. The illustration shows that 
the body is in the form of an intersected cylinder, and 
the handle and the brace are the frustums of two right 



262 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



cones. This problem, as presented, will require the de- 
velopment of patterns by both the parallel line and radial 
methods. In the construction of the patterns no prin- 







Figure 213. — Patterns for Body, Brace, and Handle of Hand Scoop. 

ciples are employed other than those used in previous 
problems already given in this course. 

To obtain the patterns, first draw the side elevation 
and half section to the dimensions shown in Figure 213. 
Divide the half section into a number of equal spaces, as 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 263: 

shown from 1 to 7, and from these points draw parallel 
lines intersecting the curved edge of the scoop as indicat- 
ed. This curved edge can be drawn to any angle or shape 
at the pleasure of the workman. 

To obtain the pattern for the body of the scoop, draw 
the stretch-out line 1-7-1, upon which step off twice the 
number of spaces contained in the half section. From 
these points on the stretch-out line draw horizontal lines, 
which are intersected by vertical lines drawn from similar 
numbered points on the curved edge of the scoop, shown 
in the elevation. A line traced through these points will 
give the pattern for the body, to which laps are added for 
a %-inch grooved seam. The scoop handle B is the frus- 
tum of a cone, shown by abed, which is soldered to the 
conter of the flat back of the scoop. 

The conical brace is shown by mnop. The patterns for 
the brace and handle are shown in the drawing, and the 
method of development has been fully described in pre- 
vious problems. The pattern for the back is simply a 
jlrtt circular piece of metal, equal in diameter to the body 
cf the scoop, to which allowances are added for seaming. 
The pattern for the end of the handle is a circular piece 
of metal, equal in diameter to the large end of the handle, 
shown at D. This disc is cut from the flat metal by means 
of a hollow punch of the Required size. It is then placed 
in the opening and soldered in position. 



CHAPTER XIII 
PIPE INTERSECTIONS AND TEE JOINTS 

Pipes of the Same Diameter. — Figure 214 shows the 
method of developing the patterns for a T, or tee 
joint, or the intersection of two cylinders of the same 
diameter at right angles. Draw the half plan and eleva- 
tion, making both pipes 3 inches in diameter. Make the 
height of the vertical pipe A 6 inches, and the short side 
of the horizontal pipe iy 2 inches. Draw the half sec- 
tion of the horizontal pipe B and divide it into a number 
of equal parts, as shown in 1 to 7 in D. Then divide the 
half plan into the same number of spaces, placing the 
numbers in their proper positions, as shown. 

In the half section D of the horizontal pipe the points 
1 and 7 are on the top and bottom, while the point 4 is 
on the long side of the pipe, and when looking down upon 
the end of the vertical pipe, point 4 will intersect the 
vertical pipe on the side, as shown by point 4 in the half 
plan. Now draw horizontal lines from the points in sec- 
tion D, which are intersected by vertical lines drawn from 
similar numbered points in the half plan C. Lines traced 
through these points of intersection will give the miter 
line. The two pipes being of the same diameter, the miter 
is represented on the drawing by straight lines at an 
angle of 45°, shown by abc. 

To obtain the pattern E for the horizontal pipe B, 
draw the stretch-out line mn, upon which step off twice 
the number of spaces contained in the half section D. 
From the various points on the stretch-out line of the pat- 
tern, draw horizontal measuring lines which intersect 
by vertical lines drawn from similar numbered points 

264 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



265 



on the miter line abc. Trace a line through these inter- 
sections, shown by defg, and the desired pattern is se- 
cured. 




Half Plan 

Figure 214. — Development of Patterns for a T or Tee Joint. 

The pattern F for the vertical pipe A is simply a rec- 
tangular piece of metal, the width being equal to the 
height of the pipe and the length equal to its circum- 



266 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

ference. The pattern for the opening to be cut in pat- 
tern F 9 to receive the pipe B, is laid out in the following 
manner : 

Upon the upper edge of the pattern, shown by the 
line ok, locate point 1, which will be the center of the 
opening. On each side of point 1 step off the spaces 
shown from 1 to 4 in the half plan C, which will give 
the length of the opening. From these points on line 
ok draw vertical lines, which intersect by horizontal 
lines drawn from similar numbered points on the miter 
line abc in the elevation. A line traced through these 




Figure 215. — T- Joint in Pipes of Different Diameters, Angle of 90°. 

points of intersection will give the pattern for the open- 
ing. An allowance added for seaming is shown by the 
dotted line drawn parallel to the outline of the opening. 

After the pattern for the vertical pipe has been trans- 
ferred to metal, the opening is cut on the dotted line by 
means of the circular snips. Using the points of the 
straight snips, the lap is then notched, making the cuts 
about y 2 inch apart around the entire opening. 

The pipe is now formed up and seamed in the usual 
manner. Then using the flat pliers, bend the notched 
lap outward to fit inside the horizontal pipe, which is 
slipped over the flange thus made and can be soldered or 
riveted in position. 

When constructed from black iron, the short stub is 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



267 



slipped over the flange and one or two rivets placed on 
each side at point b in the elevation. The flange is then 
closed tightly against the pipe on the inside by means of 
the hammer, making a tight, rigid joint between the two 
pipes. 

Pipes of Different Diameters. — Figure 215 shows the 
finished view of a T-joint, the pipes being of different 




Seam 



Figure 216. — Plan and Elevation for Right Angled Pipe Joint. 

diameters, the horizontal pipe being placed in the center 
of the vertical pipe at an angle of 90°. Applying the 
method given in Figure 214, develop the patterns for 
the inclined pipe, also the opening in the vertical pipe. 
First draw the plan and elevation shown in Figure 
216 ; make the diameter of the large pipe A 4 inches and 
of the small pipe B 3 inches. The height of the vertical 
pipe D is 7 inches and the length of the shortest side of 



268 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the horizontal pipe is 3 inches. After the outline of the 
small pipe B has been drawn in the plan-view, draw the 
half section C and divide it into a number of equal spaces. 
Then draw horizontal lines from these points, intersect- 
ing the large circle A as shown in the drawing. Next 
draw the half section F on the end of the small pipe in 
the elevation, which must be a duplicate of the half circle 
C in the plan, and is divided into the same number of 
spaces, the points being numbered in their proper posi- 
tion. 

From these points in section F draw horizontal lines 
which are intersected by vertical lines drawn from sim- 
ilar numbered points on the large circle A in the plan. 
A curved line traced through these points of intersection 
will give the miter line between the two pipes. 

To develop the pattern for the small pipe, draw the 
stretch-out line db and proceed in the same manner as 
explained in the previous problem. 

The pattern for the opening in the large pipe is ob- 
tained in the same manner as the opening in the vertical 
pipe shown in Figure 214. The stretch-out of the open- 
ing is shown by the figures 4-1-4 in the plan. The spaces 
being unequal in width, they must be transferred sepa- 
rately to the stretch-out line of the pattern. 

Joining the Pipes. — The two pipes can be joined to- 
gether by the method described in the previous problem, 
but if it is desired to make a more substantial connection, 
the method commonly used by the sheet metal worker 
when joining two pipes of unequal diameters is shown 
in Figure 215, and the joint is made in the following man- 
ner : 

After the small pipe has been formed up and seamed, 
turn a flange about % inch wide on the curved end, by 
means of the rounded end of the riveting hammer and 
square stake. A collar is now inserted in the end and 
riveted in several places about y 2 inch above the flange. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 269 

The collar is cut slightly smaller in length than the cir- 
cumference of the stub, and should be wide enough to 
allow for riveting, and extend about % inch beyond the 
flanged end after it has been trimmed parallel to the 
outline of the end. 

The projecting edge of the collar is notched and in- 
serted into the opening of the large pipe ; the notched edge 
of the collar is now bent over and fitted closely against 
the inside of the pipe by means of the hammer. By this 




Figure 217. — T- Joint of 45° Angle. 

method the large pipe is held firmly between the two 
flanges of the smaller pipe. 

The principles used in the development of the patterns 
in this problem (Figure 216) are applicable, no matter 
what diameters the pipes are, or whether the small pipe 
is placed in the center or at one side of the vertical pipe. 
The pipes can also be placed at any angle, and differ in 
profile. 

T -Joint at an Angle of 45°. — Figure 217 shows the fin- 
ished view of a T- joint, both pipes having the same diame- 
ters, joined at an angle of 45°. The full development is 
shown in Figure 218. The principles in this problem 
do not differ from those given in Figure 214. The prob- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 271 

lems are the same, except in the position of the horizontal 
pipe B. 

Draw the elevation and plan, making both pipes 3 
inches in diameter, pipe B having an inclination of 45°. 
Space the plan D, and section C in the usual manner. 
Draw lines from these points intersecting in the elevation. 
A line traced through the intersections thus obtained will 




Figure 219. — Y-Joint in Pipes of Equal Diameters. 

give the miter line between the two pipes, shown by abc 
in the elevation. Pattern E /or the inclined pipe and pat- 
tern F for the vertical pipe are shown fully developed, 
and will require no further explanation, as the method 
has been described in the previous problems in this 
chapter. 

Y-Joint. — Figure 219 is the illustration of a Y-joint y 
the diameter of each branch being the same. The sheet 
metal worker needs no introduction to this familiar form, 
as it is used for many different purposes in the trade. 
This problem is presented to give practice in developing 
patterns for intersected cylinders having the same diame- 
ter. 

The elevation, partial development, and dimensions 
are shown in Figure 220. First draw the elevation ac- 



>72 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



cording to the dimensions shown on the drawing, making 
the arms A and B at an angle of 90°. The miter line ab 
is obtained by bisecting the angle cad, as shown. 

The pipes being of the same diameter, a half section of 
the arm A, shown at D, is all that is required. Divide 




Figure 220. — Elevation and Partial Development of Pattern for Y-Joint. 

the half section D into a number of equal parts, being 
careful to place a point on the quarter-circle, as shown 
by point 4. Draw parallel lines from these points inter- 
secting the miter lines fb and ba as shown. At right 
angles to the arms A and C, draw the stretch-out lines gh 
and mn, and complete the patterns as directed in the pre- 
ceding problems. 

Chimney Cap. — Figure 221 shows the elevation of a 
ventilator head, or chimney cap, the pipes being of the 



IEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



273 



same diameter. This is presented as a test problem, as 
it involves the development of two problems described 
in this chapter. The arms A and B form a T-joint at a 
right angle, similar to Figure 214, while the arms B and C 
are joined at other than a right angle, similar to the prob- 
lem shown in Figure 218. 




Figure 221. — Elevation of a Chimney Cap, or Ventilator Head. 

Draw the elevation and half sections as shown in the 
drawing. Then develop the patterns for the arms ABC. 
The method of development has been fully explained in 
preceding cases, so that no further demonstration need 
be given. 



CHAPTER XIV 

ELBOWS 

An illustration of a four-piece 90° elbow, which is 
used universally in heating and ventilating work, is shown 
in Figure 222. Elbows of this form, having a small radius 
in the inner curve or throat, are commonly made use of 
in stovepipe work, furnace work, and in duct work where 




Figure 222. — Four-piece 90° Elbow. 

a blast is not used. Elbows having a large radius in the 
throat are generally used for making turns in grain con- 
veyers, exhaust and blow-piping work. In projects of 
this kind an elbow having a short radius should never 
be used if it can be avoided. 

The drawings shown in Figure 223 contain all the neces- 
sary details for development of the patterns for elbows 
at any angle, having any number of pieces. The work- 

274 



cr 
o 

© 




276 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

man should follow the instructions carefully, and memo- 
rize the construction of the problem. 

Four-Piece 90° Elbow, — Figure 223 shows the method 
of obtaining the patterns for a four-piece 90° elbow hav- 
ing a diameter of 5 inches ; the length of the radius for 
the inner curve of the elbow being 3 inches. First draw 
the right angle shown by the dotted line BAG. Next, on 
the line AC lay off a distance of 3 inches from A to B. 
With A as center and Ab as radius, describe the quarter 
circle be, which gives the required curve for the throat. 
Make bC equal 5 inches, the diameter of the elbow, and 
with AC as the radius and A as center describe the outer 
arc BC. 

The joint lines of the elbow, shown by DEF, are found 
by dividing the outer arc BC into equal parts one less in 
number than the pieces required in the elbow ; in this case 
into three spaces, shown by Bm, mm, and mC. Bach of 
these spaces is bisected, and lines drawn from these points 
to the apex A will represent the joint or miter lines of the 
elbow. The outline of the different pieces of the elbow 
is now completed by drawing lines tangent to the arcs 
eb and BC, as shown in the drawing. 

The above method can be used in obtaining the miter 
line for an elbow of any angle or of any desired number 
of pieces. After the elevation has been completed, draw 
the half section G, and divide it into a number of equal 
spaces, as shown by the figures 1 to 9. From these points 
draw vertical lines intersecting the miter line AF in the 
elevation. 

The pattern for the first section of the elbow is devel- 
oped by drawing the horizontal line JK, upon which place 
the stretch-out of twice the number of spaces contained 
in the half section G. From these points on the stretch- 
out line draw vertical lines, which intersect lines drawn 
from similar numbered points on the miter line AF in the 
elevation. Through the points thus obtained, the irregu- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 277 

lar curve of the pattern may be traced, as shown by eLe, 
which completes the pattern for piece No. 1 of the elbow. 
This irregular curve is the only one needed, and is used 
in laying out the patterns for the entire elbow. 

The patterns for the sections numbered 2, 3 and 4 are 
usually laid out directly on the metal, in the following 
manner : A piece of metal equal in length to the stretch- 
out of the pattern is provided, and pattern L is trans- 
ferred to the metal by the usual method of pricking, as 
described in Chapter I. Next, take the length of the 
wide side of section 2, as shown by EF in the elevation, 




Figure 224. — Five-piece 60° Elbow. 

and mark this dimension on each end of the metal, as 
shown by ef. Then take the throat width or short side of 
piece No. 3, and place it as shown by fg. The length of 
the long side or top of piece No. 4 is placed on the metal, 
as shown by gh. 

Pattern L is now cut from the metal, after which the 
metal pattern is turned over and the curved edge placed 
on the points //. The irregular curve of the pattern is 



278 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



scribed on the metal by means of the scratch awl, which 
completes the pattern for piece No. 2, shown at M . 

The patterns for pieces Nos. 3 and 4 are completed by 
placing the curved edge of pattern L on the points gg; 




Figure 225. — Elevation of Five-piece 60° Elbow. 



then scribe the irregular curve on the metal, and connect 
the points hh with a straight line, completing the patterns 
N and 0. 

This method of grouping the patterns places the seams 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 279 

opposite each other, and allows the patterns to be cut 
from a rectangular piece of metal without waste of ma- 
terial. 

The patterns are now cut from the sheet, corners 
notched, rivet holes punched, formed in the forming ma- 
chine (Figures 35, 36) and riveted on the mandrel stake ; 
after which the edges for seaming the pieces together are 
turned on the elbow edging machine (Figure 71). 

Five-Piece 60° Elbow. — Figure 224 shows a finished 
iive-piece elbow with an angle of 60°, such as would be 
used in ventilating and blow-pipe work, where it is de- 
sired to reduce the friction to the lowest possible amount 
by constructing an elbow having a long length of throat. 

In Figure 225 is shown the elevation of a 5-piece 60° 
elbow, the inner curve or throat being described with an 8- 
inch radius. This problem is introduced in order to give 
practice in developing the patterns for elbows at other 
than a right angle. 

First, draw the required angle BAG. Next, on the line 
AC, measure off a distance of 8 inches from A to D, which 
is the required radius for the throat curve of the elbow. 
With A as center, describe the arc DE. Make DC equal 
5 inches, and with AC as radius describe the outer arc CB, 
which is divided into four equal spaces, one less in num- 
ber than the pieces in the elbow. These spaces are shown 
by Bm, mm, and mc in the drawing. • Each of these 
spaces is bisected as shown at a, a, a, a, and lines drawn 
from these points to the apex A will give the required 
miter line for each section of the elbow. 

Complete the elevation, and develop the pattern for 
piece No. 1. The development is not shown on the draw- 
ing, as the work would be simply a repetition of the 
operations described in laying out the patterns for the 
four-piece 90° elbow shown in Figure 223. 

The end pieces, Nos. 1 and 5, may be made any length 
at the pleasure of the workman, but the length of the 



280 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

heel and throat of the middle sections 2, 3, and 4, should 
be taken from the elevation. These dimensions are shown 
by xx and ib in section No. 3, and cannot be changed 
when once the arc DE, representing the inner curve of 
the elbow, has been described on the drawing. 

DUCT ELBOWS 

Square or rectangular piping, or duct work, has become 
a very important part of the sheet metal trade, and is 
largely used in the installation of heating and ventilating 




Figure 226. — Rectangular Duct 90° Elbow. 

systems. A curved elbow, of the style generally used in 
this class of work, is shown in Figure 226. These elbows 
are made in four pieces, consisting of the two sides, the 
heel, and the throat. The heel is the outer and the throat 
the inner curve. 

When laying out the patterns for duct elbows of this 
kind, the radius for describing the inner curve or throat 
should be equal to the width of the duct. The pieces are 
usually joined together by riveting or double seaming the 
corners by means of the double-seaming stakes or "hand 
dollies.' ' 

This problem is presented to give practice in the con- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



281 







**i 




X X 




5? 


$ 








t 


r-i^ 


i 




3 f 
3 1 
3 ^ 

to |^ 
to 

t 


Co 






N <* 




t" 1 

PS 

o 


« <*_ 
















!^ 



|\> 



0* 



Ol 



Or 






^ 

oT 






282 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

struction of a duct elbow, and to describe an easy and 
quick method for seaming the corners of elbows and 
square or rectangular pipes by the method commonly 
known in the trade as "the Pittsburgh seam." 

Rectangular Duct 90° Elbow. — In Figure 227 is shown 
the method of laying out the patterns for a 90° rectan- 
gular elbow, in which the turn is made on the short side 
of the pipe. Draw the elevation A and profile B accord- 
ing to the dimensions given on the drawing. First draw 
the right angle shown by l-a-8. With a as center and a7 
as radius, describe the quarter circle 1-7, which represents 
the inner curve or throat of the elbow. Next make 7-8 
equal the narrow side of the elbow, and with a as center 
and a8 as radius describe the arc 1-8. This is the outer 
curve, or the heel; the straight parts shown l?y xl and 
y8 are added to the quadrant to make an easy connection 
with a straight duct. An allowance of 14 inch, as shown 
by the dotted lines, is now added to the heel and throat 
for seaming ; then the elevation A will also be a pattern 
for the two sides of the elbow. 

The patterns for the heel and throat shown at C and D, 
are simply rectangular pieces of metal equal in length to 
the stretch-outs shown by xY in the elevation. The width 
is equal to the wide side of the elbow, to which 1 inch has 
been added on each side for seaming, as shown by abc 
in pattern D, making ab equal % inch and be % inch. 
Prick marks are made at these points for bending pur- 
poses, as shown by dots on each end of the patterns. 

"The Pittsburgh Searn." — In Figure 228 is shown the 
method of bending the edges of the patterns for seaming. 
The operations are performed on the cornice brake and 
the various bends are shown by the letters abc, in the 
diagram at A. 

The first operation is shown at B. Insert the sheet 
in the brake and bring down the upper clamp on the prick 
mark shown at a, then raise the lower bending leaf, bring- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 283 

ing the metal up to a right angle, as shown at B. The 
sheet is now turned over, the edge placed in the brake, 
and the upper clamp closed down on the prick mark b; 
raise the bending leaf as far as it will go, which will 
bend the metal in the position shown at C. Now place the 
sheet in the brake once more on the point a, and bend it 
up as far as it will go, as shown at D. Place a strip of 



gr 



A c 



T Tf^p — - B 



X, !sr 



c # 



c 
a 



r 



G 



r 

4 



Figure 228. — Progressive Operations of Bending Edges to Form "the 
Pittsburgh Seam" on the Cornice Brake. 

metal between a and c, and bring down the upper clamp, 
pressing the bends together closely. The strip of metal is 
removed and the edge of the sheet will appear as shown 
at E. The 14 -inch edges are now turned at a right angle 
on the sides of the elbow, as indicated at O. 

The patterns for the heel and throat are given the re- 
quired curve in the forming rolls, and during the opera- 
tion a strip of metal is again placed between bends a and 
c, so that the pressure of the rolls will not close the open- 



284 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

ing between the bends. The parts are assembled by in- 
serting the 14-inch edge of the side pattern into the 
pocket edge of the throat and heel. The projecting edge c 
shown at E, is then hammered over, which completes the 
seam as shown at F. This seam, known as " the Pittsburgh 
seam, ' ' is used in the sheet metal trade to good advantage 
for various purposes. It is easily constructed and makes 
a tight, rigid joint, 



CHAPTER XV 

KETUKN AND FACE MITEES 

This chapter treats of the method of obtaining patterns 
for miters between sheet metal moldings. The patterns 
are developed by the parallel method described in pre- 
vious chapters. Any profile or shape may be used, and in 
order to illustrate the application of the principles under- 
lying the development as applied to moldings, a number 
of practical problems are presented. 

Square Return Miter. — In Figure 229 is shown the 
illustration of a square return miter, such as would be 




Figure 229. — Square Return Miter. 

employed when a molding was made to return around the 
corner of a building. Figure 230 shows two methods of 
obtaining the pattern, known respectively as the long 
and the short method. The short method is the rule gen- 
erally employed by the sheet metal worker, but can only 
be used w^hen the miter is one of 90° ; that is, a square 
miter. The long method can be used for obtaining the 
patterns for a miter between moldings, no matter what 
angle is required. 

To develop the pattern by the long method, proceed as 

285 



286 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



follows : First draw a full-size detail of the profile or 
section, the dimensions being taken from the section 



Square Return Miter 
(ShoH Mefhod) 



e 


cf 






a 








Pattern ET 1 1 


l Pattern D 


1 1 




Inside Miter \ \\ *\Oottside Mtf-er 


1 III IX 


1 1 


I | 


1 


1 IX 


| 


1 1 






1 1 k 














1 1 


1 


k 


i ii 



'Kl 



Square Refurn Mifet 
(Long Mefhod) 



m 1514 13 




si_L 



/ 
2 

3 

4- 
S 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

It 
/2 

15 
t4> 
IS 



Section 



I 

IS 
14- 



Paftern 



Figure 230. — Long and Short Methods of Obtaining Pattern for Square 

Return Miter. 



shown at A in Figure 230, which is drawn to a 2-inch 
scale ; but any other profile may be used if desired. Divide 
the curve into a number of equal spaces, placing a suffi- 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



287 



cient number of points on the curve, so that the outline 
of the pattern may be traced with accuracy. Number 
these points, also the corners of the molding, as shown 
by the figures 1 to 15. Next, draw the plan B as shown, 
and bisect the angle KJL by the line Jl, which will give 
the required miter line. 

From the various points in section A, draw vertical 
lines intersecting the miter line in plan B. At right angles 
to JK draw the stretch-out line mn; upon this line 
place the stretch-out of the section, as shown by the 



Outside Mifer Hip 



Valley. 




Ridge 



Inside Mifer 



Roof Plan 



Figure 231. — Plan of Hipped Roof, Showing Outside and Inside Miters. 

figures 1 to 15. From these points on the stretch-out 
line draw vertical lines, which are intersected by hori- 
zontal lines drawn from similar numbered points of the 
miter line Jl in the plan B. The outline of the pattern 
is then traced through the points thus obtained, and the 
lines upon which bends are to be made are marked by 
small circles or dots, as shown on the completed pat- 
tern at F. 

The development of the pattern by the short method, 
in which no plan is required, is shown by pattern D. 
After the profile has been drawn in its proper position, 
as shown at A, the stretch-out line may conveniently be 
drawn either above or below the drawing of the profile.. 
In this case it was drawn above, as shown by the vertical 
line ab. Upon this line place the stretch-out of the pro- 



288 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

file, and number the points in the usual manner, shown 
by the figures 1 to 15. From these points at right angles 
to the stretch-out line, draw measuring lines, which inter- 
sect by vertical lines drawn from similar numbered points 
on the profile A. A line traced through the points thus 
located will complete the pattern, which is similar to pat- 
tern F, that was obtained from the plan and developed 
by the long method. 

Outside and Inside Miters. — For the purpose of illus- 
trating the difference between an outside miter and an 
inside miter, a sketch of a roof plan, representing a 
hipped roof, is shown in Figure 231. When constructing 
moldings and gutters, the workman is often required to 
develop patterns for miters returning around the outer 
and inner angles of a roof. Miters for the outer and inner 
angles are called outside and inside miters, and are placed 
as shown in the sketch. Pattern D, shown by abed in 
Figure 230, is the pattern for an outside miter, while 
the opposite cut, shown by defc, is the pattern for an 
inside miter. It will be seen that both patterns are pro- 
duced by a single miter cut, and it is important to know 
that this is also true when developing patterns for miters 
at any angle. 

Oetagon Return Miter. — Figure 232 shows the method 
of obtaining the pattern for an octagon return miter, and 
is also applicable for miters at any angle. The octagon 
miter is often employed in the construction of roof 
finials and cornices, and also frequently occurs in mold- 
ings and gutters passing around parts of a building octa- 
gonal in form. 

The pattern for an octagonal return miter is developed 
from a plan view of the molding by the long method 
shown in Figure 232, which is drawn to a 2-inch scale. 
.First draw a full size section of the molding shown at A, 
taking the dimensions from the scaled drawing. Next 
extend the wall line of the profile and draw the octagonal 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



289- 



angle of 135°, shown by mno, which will represent the 
wall line in the plan C. Bisect the angle mno and draw 
the miter line RN. The curve in the profile is divided 
into a number of equal spaces and the points numbered 
as shown by the figures 1 to 15 in section A. From all 




Figure 232. — Pattern for Octagon Return Miter. 



points on the profile draw vertical lines intersecting the 
miter line RN in the plan. 

The stretch-out of the molding is now placed upon the 
line ab, which is drawn at right angles to the wall line 
MN in the plan. Measuring lines are drawn from these 
points, which are intersected by horizontal lines drawn 
from similar numbered points on the miter line. A line 
traced through these intersections will complete the pat- 
tern, as shown at G. Should an inside miter be required,, 
the opposite cut of pattern G is used, as shown by pat- 
tern H. 



.290 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Molded Gutter. — In Figure 233 is shown a finished 
view of a molded face gutter, or eave trough miter. This 
is simply a square return miter, and it is immaterial what 




Figure 233. — Molded Face Gutter, or Eave Trough Miter. 



10 




Plcrn 



Figure 234. — Section and Plan of Molded Face Gutter. 



profile or shape the gutter has, — the method of developing 
the pattern is the same. 

In Figure 234 is shown a 2-inch scale drawing giving 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



291 



the section and plan view of a molded face gutter, for 
which a square outside miter pattern is to be developed 
by the short method shown in Figure 230. Place the 
stretch-out line either above or below the section, and 
omit the plan when making the full-size drawing. 

Octagon Gutter Miter. — The next exercise for practice 
is the octagon gutter miter shown in Figure 235, which 



bolt 




Figure 235. — Section and Plan of Octagon Gutter Miter. 



is also drawn to a scale of 2 inches to the foot. In this 
drawing the section and plan are given of an octagon gut- 
ter forming a miter at an angle of 135° in the plan. Draw 
the section and plan as shown. Number the corners on 
the section and draw vertical lines intersecting the miter 
line in the plan. At right angles to the wall line draw 
the stretch-out line, and develop the pattern in the usual 
manner. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 293- 

Face Miters. — The method of developing the pattern 
for a face miter is shown in Figure 236. This process is. 
employed when developing the patterns for miters in 
panel moldings, picture frames, and gable moldings, also 
to obtain the miter cut when the return molding of a 
dormer window butts against a mansard roof or other 
inclined surface. As may be seen from the drawing, the 
method of development is similar to that described for 
the return miter, Figure 230. The only difference is in 
the position of the stretch-out line ab in the pattern for 
the square face miter shown at 5. In this case the 
stretch-out line is placed in a horizontal position at the 
left of the profile, while the stretch-out for the square 
return miter, Figure 230, is placed in a vertical position 
above the profile. 

When developing the patterns for moldings, the sheet 
metal worker must always be careful to place the stretch- 
out line in its proper position, or, instead of having a face 
miter as indicated in Figure 236, he will have a return 
miter, as shown in Figure 230. 

In Figure 236 two problems in face miters are pre- 
sented and the drawings are made to a scale of 3 inches 
to the foot. Problem 1 shows the method of obtaining the 
pattern for a square face miter by the short method. 
Draw the profile A, and place the stretch-out line db to- 
the left of the profile. The operations in the development 
of the pattern are the same as described in Figure 230, 
and need not be described further. 

Problem 2, Figure 236, shows the development of an 
octagonal face waiter. The patterns for face miters at 
other than a right angle are developed by the long 
method, and the miter line is found in the elevation. In 
problem 2 the elevation is shown at the right of the 
profile. 

First draw the required angle CAD, which is bi- 
sected in the usual manner to obtain the miter line AB. 



294 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Next, from the various points on the profile, draw hori- 
zontal lines intersecting the miter line as shown. At 
right angles to the line BF in the elevation, draw the 
stretch-out line OH. Upon this line place the stretch- 
out of the profile shown by the figures 1 to 13. Measuring 
lines are now drawn from these points, which are inter- 
sected by lines drawn from similar numbered points on 
the miter line. Through the points thus obtained trace 
the pattern OHMN. 

Molded Panel. — The development of the face miter de- 
scribed in previous problems leads naturally to the prob- 
lem of the molded panel, shown in Figure 237. 



/ 


X 




/ 








/ 




\ 


/ ^ 



Figure 237. — Oblong Molded Panel. 



The method of obtaining the pattern for an oblong 
panel is shown in Figure 238. First draw a section of 
the panel mold A, as indicated by the shaded portion 
of the drawing. Then divide the curve into a number of 
equal spaces and number each point on the section, as 
shown by the figures 1 to 8. Through these points draw 
lines parallel to EB, intersecting the miter line mB as 
shown. From the points thus obtained on the miter line, 
draw lines parallel to BC, intersecting the miter line nC. 
At right angles to BC in the elevation, draw the stretch- 
out line ab, upon which place all of the divisions con- 
tained in the profile A. Through the points on the 
stretch-out line, draw horizontal measuring lines, which 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 



295 



intersect by vertical lines drawn from similar numbered 
points on the miter lines mB and nC in the elevation. A 
line traced through the points of intersection will com- 
plete the pattern for the ends of the panel. This is the 




Figure 238. — Pattern for an Oblong Panel. 

only pattern necessary for the construction of the prob- 
lem, for the same miter cut is also used for the long side 
of the panel. 

Roof Finial. — The sheet metal worker is often called 
upon to provide the apex of a hipped roof or tower with 



296 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



an ornamental finish made from galvanized iron or sheet 
copper. A plain fitting so used is shown in Figure 239 
and is called a roof finial. The body, square in form, 
is made in four pieces, and is commonly used to provide 
a finish at the apex of a square tower, or as an ornament 
in cornice construction. 

The method of laying out the pattern for a square 
finial is shown in Figure 240, which is drawn to a scale 
of 2 inches to the foot. The profile can be changed to 




Figure 239. — Square Roof Finial. 



any shape, but the development would be the same in 
every case. 

First draw the center line AB and construct the eleva- 
tion shown at D, the ball C being 3 inches in diameter. 
Divide the profile into a number of equal spaces and num- 
ber the points, as shown by the figures 1 to 10. The finial 
being square in form, the sides are joined together at an 
angle of 90°, and the miter on the corner is simply a 
square return miter, for which the pattern can be devel- 
oped by the short method in the following manner : 

Place the stretch-out of the profile D upon the center 
line AB, which is extended below the elevation. At right 
angles to AB draw the measuring lines, which are inter- 




Figure 240.— Layout of Pattern for a Square Finial. 



298 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

sected by lines drawn from similar numbered points in 
the elevation. Now, measuring from the center line, 
transfer these points to the opposite side of the pattern 




Figure 241. — Ornamental Conductor Head. 




TTigure 242. — Conductor Head with Inclosed Top. 

loy means of the dividers. Trace a line through the 
points thus obtained, completing the pattern for one side 
of the finial, shown by dbdc at E. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING 299 

Conductor Heads. — When a conductor pipe is used to 
drain a roof where the outlet extends through a parapet 
wall, the connection should be made by means of a con- 
ductor head. The object in using a conductor head is 
that if the down spout should become obstructed in any 
manner, the water will overflow from the conductor head, 
leaving the roof outlet clear, which will prevent the water 
from backing up and flooding the roof. 




Figure 243. — Square Ventilator. 

Figure 241 shows an ornamental conductor head having 
a flat back, the outer corners being mitered in the usual 
manner. Another form of head, having an inclosed top, 
is shown in Figure 242. There is no limit to the various 
designs that can be made at the pleasure of the work- 
man. 

The miters on the outer corners of the conductor heads 
shown in the illustrations are simply square return 
miters, and the patterns are developed by the short 
method described in the previous problem. 

Square Ventilator. — The method of development used 
in obtaining the pattern for the roof finial, Figure 240, 
can also be applied in developing the patterns for the 



Rivet 




figure 244. — Half Elevation, Section, and Plan of a Square Ventilator. 



SHEET METAL WORK AND PATTERN DRAFTING SOL 

square ventilator shown in Figure 243. These ventilators 
are usually made from sheet copper or galvanized iron, 
and are largely used in skylight construction and venti- 
lating work. 

In Figure 244 is shown the half elevation, also the half 
sectional and plan view of a square ventilator, which is 
drawn to a scale of 3 inches to the foot. As in the pre- 
ceding problem (Figure 240), the first step is to construct 
the proper elevation, but in actual shop practice the half 
sectional view is all that is required for the development 
of the different patterns. Let C represent the hood of the 
ventilator and D the flange, which is joined to the square 
base shown at E. 

The half sectional view shows the profile of the different 
sections, also the method used in joining the flange and 
base, which is shown at a. The position of the band- 
iron brace used in connecting the hood and base of the 
ventilator is shown at F. After the full-size elevation 
has been drawn, omit the plan view, and develop the pat- 
terns for the hood, flange, and base of the ventilator by 
the short method shown in Figure 240. 



VI 

OUTLINE COUBSE IN SHEET METAL WOKK 
EMERGENCY WAR TRAINING 

The following course in sheet metal work, as recom- 
mended by the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- 
tion, Washington, D. C, is intended to give training in 
general sheet metal work, soldering, brazing, and general 
repair. Sheet metal pattern drafting is not included. 
Much of the work in the army is in the nature of repairs 
to equipment. Skill in the use of the soldering iron is a 
prime requisite. 

UNIT S-l. SOLDERING 

Oral Instructions. — Explain the use of fluxes, cleaning 
of parts to be soldered ; care of soldering iron, and the tin- 
ning of the same. 

Cautions: Avoid breathing fumes from the acids. 
Keep acids and fumes away from steel tools. 

Fluxes: 

Muriatic acid. — Used raw. 

Cut or i oiled acid. — Muriatic acid with all the zinc 
that will dissolve. Dilute with 25 per cent water 
for ordinary work. 

Nitric acid. — Used to clean quickly. As soon as part 
is clean, dip in cold water to stop action. Avoid 
the acid fumes. 

Sal ammoniac. — Solid and solution. Used to clean 
the soldering iron. 

Rosin, pulverized. — Used to solder lead and some- 
times tin. 

Tallow. — To solder lead. 

302 



OUTLINE COURSE IN SHEET METAL WORK 303 

Lesson i. — Dress and tin a pair of soldering irons. A 
special shape is sometimes required and may be made 
by heating the copper to a good red heat and forging to 
shape with a hammer. Clean with a coarse file ; dip in sal 
ammoniac solution while the iron is hot and apply solder y 
or rub on a cake of sal ammoniac with solder. Continue 
this until the surface is well coated with solder. A good y 
clean, well tinned iron is the first requisite to good solder- 
ing. 

Lesson 2. — Practice soldering tin, using a plain lap 
joint. The solder must flow through the joint and the 
seam be left smooth without a surplus of solder. 

Lesson 3. — Solder holes of various sizes. If the hole is 
too large it is often possible to peen the metal around the 
hole and partly close it before applying the solder. Be 
sure the metal is clean before trying to solder. If neces- 
sary scrape the surface well and then clean with raw acid, 
wash with water and then flux with cut acid. Always 
leave the repair smooth. 

Lesson 4. — Join two pieces of copper pipe about y± 
inch diameter. Taper one end with a file and expand 
the other, using a conical point. Clean and tin the ends. 
Place them together with a twisting motion. In soldering 
use cut acid as flux ; hold the copper on the joint until it 
is hot enough to melt the solder and sweat the joint thor- 
oughly. A sleeve can be made very easily from the next 
larger size of tubing with a rat-tail file. 

Lesson 5. — Join two pieces of sheet iron. Clean the 
metal thoroughly with a file and apply raw acid till a 
slight copper color is seen. "Wash with water and solder 
as with tin, using cut acid. 

Lesson 6. — Cast iron can be soldered quite readily by 
first cleaning the parts thoroughly with a file, apply raw 
acid and rub well with the swab or brush; then wash 
with clean water and tin with solder, using cut acid as a 
flux. In using the soldering copper apply the flat sur- 



304 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

face to the cast iron so as to heat the part as much as 
possible. This method is often used to solder light pieces, 
particularly brass, to face plates of machines instead of 
holding them in chucks. This is done to avoid spring- 
ing the piece. 

Solder brass to cast iron as above. It may be removed 
with the hot iron or a torch. 

Lesson 7. — Solder cracks in cast iron; for example, a 
cracked water jacket of a gas engine. File out a V 
where the crack is, using the edge of a half-round file ; 
clean with raw acid ; wash with water and use cut acid as 
a flux. A special solder made from 70 per cent tin and 
30 per cent lead will hold better than the ordinary half- 
and-half solder. 

(Note. — Soldering automobile tanks and radiators is 
frequently required. Soldering tanks is not difficult for 
one who is skilled in the use of the soldering iron. Have 
the work clean before attempting to solder. Use raw 
acid for a flux on galvanized iron. ) 

Caution : It is very important that tanks or cans that 
have contained gasoline should be thoroughly cleaned. 
Wash out with hot water and allow to dry before attempt- 
ing to do any soldering. Get tanks and cans from a junk 
dealer for practice. 

Lesson 8. — Mend several tanks. Large holes may re- 
quire a patch. 

Lesson 9. — Test radiators and solder the leaks. For 
this purpose a tank large enough to take in a radiator 
must be provided. It should contain water enough to 
cover the radiator being tested. Plug the inlet and 
outlet pipes and close up the cap tightly. By forcing 
air in at the overflow pipe the leaks are indicated by 
bubbles. 

Caution : If compressed air is used, the operator must 
be careful not to use pressure that will burst the thin 
radiator sections. Radiator repair calls for great skill 



OUTLINE COURSE IN SHEET METAL WORK 305 

and ingenuity as each job requires special treatment. 
Often the soldering iron must be given a special shape. 

The following procedure may be followed on tubular 
radiators : Heat the tubes where they are split, with a 
blow torch. Apply cut acid several times with a squirt 
can. Rinse off. Heat again and apply cut acid. Pour a 
ladleful of melted solder over the tubes and catch in a 
pan. 

UNIT S-2. AVIATION WORK 

A thorough mastery of the lessons on soldering is neces- 
sary. Put special emphasis on Lessons 8 and 9. 

Lesson 1. — Wrap wooden pieces, such as found in the 
airplane, with copper wire and coat this wire with solder 
to form ferrules. Be sure that the ends of the wire are 
securely fastened. 

Lesson 2. — Tip wooden parts with sheet metal. The 
metal must be cut out in proper shape, sometimes shaped 
by peening, to fit neatly, must be tacked on and the joints 
and tack heads thoroughly soldered. 

Patterns for sheet metal tips may often be quickly 
made by folding paper around the part, taking up the 
slack in the paper by folds, cutting the paper and fitting 
by the " cut-and-try " process. 

Lesson 3. — Make several wire splices as described in 
Government Specifications and Signal Corps Manuals 
for Airplane Crews. Be sure that the solder runs entirely 
through every part of the splice. Remove all trace of 
acid, so as to avoid corrosion. Avoid heating the wire 
to a point where the colors start, as this softens and 
weakens the wire. Do not use a blow torch. 

Lesson 4. — Make up wire loops as directed on pages 18 
and 19, "Notes on Rigging for Air Mechanics." (See 
second annual report of the National Advisory Commit- 
tee for Aeronautics, 1916, published by Government 
Printing Office, Washington, D. C.) These loops are often 



S06 SHEET METAL WORKERS 7 MANUAL 

required to be on each end of a wire and of an exact dis- 
tance apart. The lashing must be soldered thoroughly. 
{Note. — Much practice is required in this work. It will 
require previous experience as a tinsmith or exceptional 
mechanical ability. Airplane sheet-metal workers are ex- 
pected to be able to weld small parts by the oxy-acetylene 
welding process.) 

UNIT S-3.— BRAZING 

Brazing is uniting parts by hard solder or spelter. It 
is used where more strength is required. What is known 
as silver solder is sometimes used. This comes in thin 
sheet form. Spelter is available in granular and wire 
form. 

Lesson 1. — Braze two strips of sheet iron or steel. Bevel 
the ends of the pieces so as to make a uniformly thick lap 
joint with a lap of about % or % inch. Clean with raw 
acid; wash with water. The pieces should be held to- 
gether with a clamp, fixture, or rivet. Put a piece of sil- 
ver solder between the lapped pieces. Have a pair of 
heavy pliers ready to pinch the joint together when 
heated. Heat the joint with a blow torch or a pair of 
brazing tongs. "When the solder melts remove the tongs 
or torch and quickly close the joint with the pliers. Fin- 
ish the joint to a uniform thickness with a file. 

Lesson 2. — Braze a steel tube into a fitting. Have the 
joint fit closely so the molten spelter will be drawn into 
the joint by capillary attraction. Drill and rivet the 
pieces together after cleaning, as in Lesson 1. Heat with 
a blow torch. The work should be surrounded by fire 
brick to retain the heat. It is an advantage to have a 
bed of clean coke or charcoal to work on. The gas flame 
will ignite this coke and help secure an even heat around 
the joint. When a red heat is secured, apply borax as a 
flux. When the borax runs over the joint, apply the 
spelter in granular or wire form; wire is better, as it 



OUTLINE COURSE IN SHEET METAL WORK 307 

can be placed where wanted. If the joint is not fitted 
well, the spelter will not fill the cavity and the joint may- 
look perfect but be poor. The heating can be done in an 
ordinary forge if care is used, but it is difficult to get an 
even heat throughout the joint and there is much more 
danger of overheating. 

Calcined borax is better for flux. Prepare by heating 
the borax until the water is driven off. Then cool to a 
glass form and pulverize. 

UNIT S-4. SHEET METAL PATTERNS 

This branch of sheet metal work requires some knowl- 
edge of drawing and development of surfaces. The fol- 
lowing lessons involve considerable drawing : 

Lesson 1. — Make a cylinder 4 inches in diameter with a 
butt joint. Eoll to shape and tack with solder at several 
points. 

Lesson 2. — Make a reducing pipe 4 to 3 inches, 6 inches 
long. Eoll to shape and tack with solder as in 1. The 
ends must be in a plane perpendicular to the axis. 

Lesson 3. — Make a 90° two-piece elbow 4 inches in 
diameter. Develop the pattern, cut out of tin, shape, and 
solder. 

Lesson 4. — Make a 90° four-piece elbow 4 inches in 
diameter, as in 3. 

Lesson 5. — Make a funnel of predetermined dimen- 
sions. This involves two truncated cones. Wire the edge. 

Lesson 6. — Make a tin cup 4 inches in diameter and 4 
inches deep. "Wire the edge and solder the seams. 

Lesson 7. — Make a 2-quart pail 6 inches in diameter 
and 5 inches deep. Roll a stiffening ring with beading 
or swaging rolls. Wire the edge, solder the seams, and 
attach the ears and bail complete. 

Lesson 8. — Make a T fitting 4 by 4 by 4 inches. Allow 
for seams. Develop the pattern and complete the fitting. 



308 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Lesson 9. — Make a T fitting 4 by 4 by 3 inches ; that is, 
a 4-inch pipe entered by a 3-inch pipe. Complete as in 8. 

Lesson 10. — Make a fitting as in 9, 4 by 4 by 3 inches, 
with the 3-inch pipe enteriag at a 30° angle. 

Lesson 11. — Make a conical collar that will fit around a 
4-inch pipe at the small end, the included angle of the 
cone to be 60° and the base 8 inches. 

Lesson 12. — Make a conical collar to fit over a 4-inch 
pipe that passes through a one-third-pitch roof. 

{Note. — The making of various shapes, fittings, and 
sheet-metal parts can be extended indefinitely, but it is 
felt that schools had better confine themselves to the ele- 
mentary work.) 

EMERGENCY WAR TRAINING SHEET-METAL WORKING 
EQUIPMENT 
Individual : 

1 pair No. 8 snips, straight 

1 pair No. 8 circular snips 

1 riveting hammer, 1%-inch face 

1 set solid punches 

1 roof scraper 

1 No. 6 rivet set 

1 chisel, % by 6 inches 

1 chisel, % by 10 inches 

1 pair flat pliers, 7-inch 

1 flat bastard file, 10-inch 

For each 2 men: 

1 table 3 by 7 feet, 32 inches high 
1 fire pot (gas, gasoline, or charcoal) 
1 pair soldering irons 

For each 4 men: 

1 gasoline blowtorch 

For each 6 men: 

1 bench vise 

For Unit S-4 add the following (sheet-metal patterns). 
For each 10 men: 

1 turning machine, small 

1 burring machine, large 

1 hollow mandrel stake 



OUTLINE COURSE IN SHEET METAL WORK 309 

For each 20 to 25 men : 

1 36-inch square shear 

. 1 37-inch by 2% -inch adjustable slip roll former 

1 4-foot cornice brake 

1 30-inch bar folder 

1 beading machine 

1 crimper and beader 

1 wiring machine 

1 creasing stake 

1 blow-horn stake 



VII 

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 

The oxy-acetylene process of welding and cutting is 
an adaptation of a very ancient art, which was first prac- 
ticed by the Egyptians. The early process consisted of 
heating metals of a low melting point by means of a 
torch, using a crude fuel gas and drawing the necessary 
oxygen from the air. 

The modern process of blowpipe welding is somewhat 
similar, but it is applied successfully to the welding of 
high-melting-point metals as well. It involves the use of 
dissolved acetylene and compressed oxygen. These gases, 
burned in a suitable blowpipe, produce a flame tempera- 
ture of approximately 6,300 degrees Fahrenheit, which is 
capable of bringing metals to a molten state very rapidly. 

Blowpipe welding is generally known as " autogenous " 
welding, but this term may also be applied to electric 
welding. Autogenous welding, however, has gradually 
come to be understood as meaning the oxy-acetylene blow- 
pipe welding process, which, in commercial fields, has 
practically supplanted the older methods of blowpipe 
welding, such as oxy-hydrogen and oxy-coal-gas processes. 

The oxy-acetylene process of welding consists of heat- 
ing the pieces of metal to be joined, at the point of weld, 
to a molten state by means of the oxy-acetylene flame, 
causing them to run together or "fuse" into one homo- 
geneous piece. A rod or stick of special metal (com- 
monly called filling or "filler" rod) is used to fill in be- 
tween pieces of new metal being welded together. 

This process must not be confused with soldering or 

310 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING Bil 

brazing, as the welded joint is one in which the parts 
joined together are fused into a solid piece of the same 
structure and character throughout. A soldered or a 
brazed joint is one in which a new metal, having certain 
adhesive qualities, is used as a binder. This new metal 
adheres to the parts to be joined, but does not fuse with 
them, as its melting point is much lower than that of the 
parts being operated upon. In the fusing process, or the 
melting together of the pieces welded, lies the strength, 
neatness, and economy of the oxy-acetylene welding proc- 
ess, which is rapidly supplanting the older riveting and 
soldering methods. 

Necessary Gases Universally Obtainable. — Oxygen is 
manufactured for commercial purposes by the liquid-air 
and electrolytic processes and is obtainable universally 
in portable steel cylinders, into which the oxygen is com- 
pressed to 1,800 pounds to the square inch. Being com- 
pressed under this high pressure, a single cylinder con- 
tains enough oxygen for considerable work, and yet it is 
perfectly safe, being manufactured under strict regula- 
tions, enforced by the Interstate Commerce Commission. 

Dissolved acetylene for commercial purposes is pre- 
pared in equally convenient form by such concerns rs 
The Prest-O-Lite Company, Inc. The gas is generated at 
central charging plants, washed, dried, and purified to 
remove elements which are injurious to the weld, and 
furnished to the user in specially constructed steel cylin- 
ders of various capacities. 

Contrary to a popular supposition, these gas tanks are 
not empty steel shells, but are completely filled with a 
porous substance. This porous matter is saturated with 
a liquid solvent which has the peculiar property of ab- 
sorbing or dissolving many times its own volume of acety- 
lene at atmospheric pressure. Thus, gas tanks that would 
hold only 2 cubic feet of water when empty will hold 300 
cubic feet of dissolved acetylene at 225 pounds pressure, 



312 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

60 degrees Fahrenheit. It is in this way that large quan- 
tities of acetylene are stored in small containers at com- 
paratively low pressure. 

Prest-O-Lite dissolved acetylene in large welding cyl- 
inders is obtainable in any industrial center. In light 
welding work, where the demands for acetylene are not 
heavy, Prest-O-Lite gas tanks such as are commonly used 
on automobiles, and which are obtainable and exchange- 
able in almost any town or village, can be used. 

The advantages of having both oxygen and acetylene 
in portable cylinders are quite evident, as a complete 
independent welding plant is provided, which may be 
moved from place to place where its services are required. 

Qualifications of the Operator. — It does not take very 
long for an intelligent student or workman to become a 
fair welder on simple work. A few weeks' practice will 
develop all the skill necessary to enable a workman to 
handle ordinary welding work likely to be met with in the 
average shop. Very thin plate work, however, requires 
more skill. It takes more time to attain the steadiness 
of hand necessary to make neat welds, and to learn how 
best to overcome the buckling difficulties that invariably 
are met. It is impossible to make any hard and fast rule 
on the best methods of accomplishing this. Experience 
is the best teacher, but to this must be added persever- 
ance on the part of the operator. 

The welding together of plates over 14 inch thick 
should not be attempted on serious work until the opera- 
tor has demonstrated, by first welding some sample 
pieces and then breaking them at the weld, that he is 
capable of making a sound, unburned joint of uniform 
strength and quality throughout. 

A positive desire oh the part of the workman to do good 
work is absolutely essential, because it is difficult to judge 
the quality of a weld by merely looking at it after com- 
pletion. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 313 

Anyone watching a blowpipe welding operation for the 
first time is apt to come to the conclusion that the process 
is so simple that any workman can operate a torch with 
little or no practice. In a sense this is true, but it is 
essential that the operator have a fair knowledge of the 
nature and properties of the metals being welded, the 
effects of expansion and contraction, the reason for the 
use of fluxes and filling rods, the proper kind of filling 
material, how to apply heat without burning the metal,- 
etc. All this is necessary to attain the most satisfactory 
results, and this certainly cannot be gained in a single 
day. 

Oxy-acetylene welding must be considered a trade, for 
a skilled welding operator is just as much an artisan as 
a blacksmith or a machinist. 

WELDING APPARATUS 

There are a great many oxy-acetylene welding out- 
fits manufactured in various types. A typical portable 
welding outfit is shown in Figure 245. The type of blow- 
pipe shown with this apparatus is of sufficient capacity to 
handle the widest field of oxy-acetylene welding opera- 
tions practicable. 

The welding apparatus proper consists of the welding 
blowpipe (Figure 246) and two lengths of rubber hose, 
one for acetylene and one for oxygen, which are con- 
nected to acetylene and oxygen regulators. 

The Blowpipe.- — Designed for use in connection with 
compressed gases, this style of blowpipe works on the 
equal pressure system ; that is to say, both gases are de- 
livered to the blowpipe inlet at equal pressures and no 
injector device is necessary. The gases are mixed near 
the handle and flow together along the full length of the 
stem, insuring a perfect mixture by the time the tip is 
reached. The stem is fitted to the mixing chamber by 
means of a union nut, which permits the operator to 



314 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 




Figure 245. — A Typical Portable Welding Outfit Employing Both 
Welding Gases (Oxygen and Acetylene) in Safety Storage Cylinders, 
Mounted on a Two-Wheeled Truck. This Outfit Weighs Less Than 300 
Lbs., and May Be Handled Easily by One Man. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



315 



point the welding tip in any direction without changing 
his method of holding the blowpipe. Line adjustments 
of the oxygen and acetylene supplies are made by control 
valves in the blowpipe. 

For continuous light welding work the smaller blow- 
pipe, shown in Figure 247, is more suitable, permitting 





2H 3H 4H 5H 6H 

Figure 246. — Equal Pressure Welding Blowpipe. A, Clamp for Hold- 
ing Acetylene Hose on Nipple ; B, Clamp for Holding Oxygen Hose on 
Nipple ; G, Union Nut on Oxygen Hose Nipple ; B, Union Nut on Acety- 
lene Hose Nipple ; E> Needle Valve for Controlling Acetylene Supply ; 
F, Needle Valve for Controlling Oxygen Supply ; G, Stuffing Nut on 
Oxygen Needle Valve ; J, Union Nut for Disengaging or Changing Angle 
of Barrel of Blowpipe ; J, Interchangeable Welding Tip, Size 7H 3 
1H, 2H, 3H, J^H, 5H, and 6H are Extra Interchangeable Welding Tips. 




*fe 






Figure 247. — Oxy-Acetylene Welding Blowpipe for Continuous Light 
Work, also for Lead Burning. 



of more skillful manipulation. This size blowpipe is also 
to be used for lead burning. 

A number of blowpipe tips of different sizes are usually 
furnished with welding blowpipes, for use on different 
classes of work. These tips are constructed of brass or 
copper and are interchangeable. Full instructions for 
the selection of tips for different operations are furnished 
by the manufacturers. 



316 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL, 



Acetylene Regulators,- as illustrated in Figure 248, 
regulate the pressure of the acetylene from the source of 
supply. Regulators used in connection with gas cylinders 
are fitted with two pressure gauges. The inlet, or high- 
pressure, gauge indicates the approximate contents of 
the cylinder, and the outlet,. or working pressure, gauge 
indicates the acetylene pressure in the hose line. The 
working pressure is regulated by an adjusting screw in 
the acetylene reducing valve. The pressure can be fur- 




Figure 248. — Automatic Constant Pressure Acetylene Regulator. 
M, Union Nut Securing Regulator on Acetylene Cylinder Valve ; N 3 
Acetylene Regulator Outlet Needle Valve ; 0, Acetylene Pressure Regu- 
lator Screw ; P, Low or Working Pressure Gauge ; Q, High or Cylinder 
Pressure Gauge ; R, Acetylene Reducing Valve ; 8 S Acetylene Hose Nip- 
ple ; V , Wrench on Acetylene Cylinder Valve ; W_, Acetylene Cylinder 
Valve ; Z 3 Gland Nut on Acetylene Cylinder Valve. 



ther regulated by an outlet needle valve at the hose con- 
nection. 

The oxygen regulator, connected to the valve of the 
oxygen cylinder, is essentially the same as the acetylene 
regulator, excepting the pressure gauges, which are de- 
signed for the higher pressure at which oxygen is used. 

Welder's goggles, which are usually furnished with all 
welding outfits, are very essential and should be worn in 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 317 

all welding work. While the oxy-acetylene flame gives 
off only slight ultra-violet rays, they are so intense that 
it is very dazzling and tiresome to the naked eye. Goggles 
also guard the eyes against sparks and particles of molten 
metal. 

Welder tracks, on which the gas cylinders are mounted 
and which facilitate moving the welding outfit where it 
is desired, can be had from manufacturers. 

THE OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING FLAME 

Chemistry of the Flame. — Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ) is com- 
posed of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). On combustion, 
the carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide 
(C0 2 ), and the hydrogen combines with oxygen to form 
water vapor (H 2 0). This takes place in the following 
manner : 

When the gases issue from the blowpipe into the weld- 
ing flame, the acetylene immediately dissociates ; in other 
words, it splits up into carbon dioxide and water vapor. 
In consequence of the high flame temperature (6,300° 
Fahr.), the water vapor formed by this primary combus- 
tion is immediately dissociated into hydrogen and oxygen. 
The oxygen assists in the burning of the carbon, while the 
hydrogen (which can only combine with oxygen at a tem- 
perature below 4,000° Fahr.) passes away from the high 
temperature zone and combines with the oxygen of the 
atmosphere at the outer blue part of the flame, where the 
temperature is sufficiently low to permit it. The result of 
this is that the inner or welding cone of the flame is pro- 
tected by a shield of free hydrogen, which prevents loss 
of heat and also tends to protect the weld from oxidation. 

The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is approxi- 
mately 6,300° Fahr., at the hottest part of the flame, 
which is the tip of the inner white cone. The effect of 
this tremendous heat at the point of treatment is to 
bring the metal very rapidly to a molten state, so that it 



318 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

flows together and mixes thoroughly with the proper 
quantity of metal added by the operator. 

The molten mass thus formed does not merely cement 
two pieces of metal together — it fuses them into one uni- 
form mass. 

Flame Adjustment. — It is absolutely necessary at all 
times that the welding flame be neutral ; that is, that there 




Figure 249. — The Oxy-Acetylene Flame. A shows a Welding Flame 

with an Excess of Acetylene ; B Shows a Correct Natural Welding 

Flame ; C a Welding Flame with an Excess of Oxygen. 



be no excess of oxygen or acetylene. A correctly ad- 
justed (neutral) flame is shown at B of Figure 249. It 
will be noted that the inner cone is clear, and well de- 
fined. A of Figure 249 shows a flame having an excess 
of acetylene. The inner cone is ragged in appearance. 
To make such a flame "neutral," the acetylene should 
be cut down by reducing the pressure, either at the regu- 
lator or at the blowpipe, or by increasing the oxygen 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 319 

supply. C of Figure 249 shows an excess of oxygen. The 
inner cone has a very pale violet color and is shorter than 
the cone in the neutral flame at B. Proper adjustment, 
in this case, is accomplished by reducing the oxygen pres- 
sure or increasing the acetylene pressure, at the regula- 
tors or at the blowpipe. 

The correct oxygen and acetylene working pressures 
for the various size blowpipe tips are given in welding 
tables furnished by the manufacturer. After a few 
days' practice, the operator will learn to know when he 
has a correct welding flame, and will pay less attention to 
the working pressure gauges on the regulators. 

Methods of Adjustment. — The beginner will be able 
to get a correct adjustment of the flame more easily, and 
with absolute certainty, by first opening the blowpipe 
valves wide and then adjusting the oxygen and acetylene 
pressures at the regulators, according to the manufac- 
turer 's recommendations for the tip used. Start the ad- 
justment with a slight excess of acetylene, as indicated 
by the ragged appearance of the flame, and then slowly 
throttle the acetylene until a clear, well-defined inner cone 
is obtained. 

The following is another method of adjusting the weld- 
ing flame which has proved quick, effective, and quite 
reliable to many experienced operators. Adjust the 
acetylene and oxygen pressures at the regulators to the 
values given in the table, or to values slightly higher than 
these. Turn on the acetylene at the blowpipe and light 
the blowpipe. Continue to turn on the acetylene until a 
point is reached where the smoky yellow flame jumps 
away from the end of the welding blowpipe tip, so that 
the tip and the flame are separated by a gap of a small 
fraction of an inch. As soon as this point is reached, 
turn on sufficient oxygen pressure to neutralize the flame. 
In almost all cases the result will be a neutral flame 
which will work satisfactorily under all conditions. 



320 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Note. — All adjustments at the regulators must be made 
while the blowpipe is alight. 

The regulation of the welding flame really means the 
regulation of the white inner cone. This cone should 
always be as large as possible, provided its outline is 
sharp and distinct. A long, clear inner cone should al- 
ways be sought. The gases should be readjusted several 
times, if necessary, until the desired result is obtained. 

When the blowpipe is first lighted, it is cold. Kadiated 
heat from the molten metal will gradually warm it. This 
is apt to affect the welding flame slightly. It usually will 
be found necessary to make readjustment of the gas pres- 
sures, by means of the oxygen and acetylene needle valves 
on the blowpipe, after the blowpipe has been at work for 
a few minutes. 

Effects of Improper Regulation. — It should be remem- 
bered that steels and cast iron are combinations of iron 
and carbon. It will be appreciated, therefore, that if the 
welding flame has an excess of oxygen, the metal will be 
decarbonized or oxidized, and the nature of the metal 
changed. 

On the other hand, molten iron or steel will absorb 
carbon. Thus, excess of acetylene in a welding flame will 
carbonize the metal. This should be avoided, except in 
special cases where it is desired to carbonize mild steel. 

PREPARATION FOR WELDING 

The operator should remember that any job to be 
welded must be properly prepared, cleaned, lined up, 
etc., before the blowpipe is lighted. 

Butt Welding. — Metals of % inch in thickness or less 
are usually butt welded without beveling (see Figure 
250). 

In welding metal parts more than % inch in thick- 
ness, the entire thickness of each side should be beveled 
at an angle of about 45° (Figure 251). Beveling insures 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



321 



penetration of the weld entirely through the metal. This 
is especially necessary in heavy sections. When the metal 
is more than % inch thick, and it is possible to weld 



Figure 250. — Example of Butt Joint Before Welding on Thin Sheet 
Metal up to % Inch in Thickness, Where Beveling Is Unnecessary. 



Figure 251. — Bevel Employed on Metal Less than % or % Inch and 
Over y s Inch in Thickness. 




Figure 252. — Example of Beveling and Welding Sections Over % Inclfc 

in Thickness. Parts Are Beveled and Welded on 

Both Sides, as Shown. 




Figure 253. — Beveling of Sections Over % Inch in Thickness Where 
Parts Must Be Welded from One Side Only. 



from both sides, it is advisable to bevel as illustrated by 
Figure 252. If it is impossible to weld from both sides, 
considerable time and material will be saved by beveling; 
roughly, as shown in Figure 253. 



322 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

For work exceeding % inch in thickness, the beveling 
operation, in the case of steel, can be performed by means 
of the oxy-acetylene cutting blowpipe. 

On thinner sections, the beveling can be performed by 
grinding, or with a hammer and chisel. On the thinnest 
sections where beveling is necessary, use a file. 

Flange Welds. — In construction work on extremely 
thin sheet metal sections the edges of the parts to be 




Figure 254. — Flange Made on Thin Sheets Before Welding. 

welded should be flanged (Figure 254). When this is 
done, no filling material need be used, the metal in the 
flange serving this purpose. Figure 255 shows the ap- 
pearance of a weld made on thin sheets, flanged before 



Figure 255. — Appearance of a Weld Made on Thin Sheets, Flanged 
Before Welding. 

welding. Figure 257 shows a type of clamp that can be 
used to advantage on thin metal sheets flanged for weld- 
ing. It can be operated by a helper, who grips the metal 
a few inches ahead of the weld and moves the clamp 



Figure 256. — A Lap Joint, Before Welding. 

when the welder comes up to him. On long seams a num- 
ber of these clamps can be used, being held in position by 
the locking ring which is shown around the handles in 
Figure 258. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



323 



The lap weld (Figure 256) has some disadvantages and 
should only be attempted when butt welding or flange 
welding is impossible. The weld does not penetrate the 
total overlap of the parts and is therefore of uncertain 
strength. 

In ail welding operations, the parts to be welded 
should be set in proper alignment before the flame is ap- 




Figure 257.- 



-Method of Holding Flanged Thin Sheets in Position for 
Welding. 





Figure 258. — Clamp with Locking Ring. 



plied. Too often, operators fail to take enough time at 
the start to properly line up the parts to be welded. 
The result is that the work is sometimes found to be out 
of alignment and the part rendered useless, no matter 
how good a weld has been made. 



324 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

FILLING RODS 

The gap, or crack, that exists between two pieces pre- 
pared for welding requires that some additional metal 
be supplied to fill it up. For this purpose rods or wires 
known as filling or welding rods of various styles are 
employed. 

It will be appreciated that the strength and nature of 
the welded joint will depend to a great extent on the 
nature of the filling rod. In order to obtain a joint that 
will be the same as the metal of the parts being welded, 
it is of course necessary that the added metal, after the 
welding is completed, be of the same percentage composi- 
tion. In order to obtain this ideal result, it is often neces- 
sary that the filler, before it is melted into the gap or 
crack, contain some excess of the substances (foreign to 
the pure metal) which gave to the sections of the metal 
part to be joined their particular characteristics of hard- 
ness, ductility, or high tensile strength. 

The necessity at times for adding an additional quan- 
tity of this particular quality-giving substance is due to 
the fact that a portion of this substance may be burned 
out (or volatilized) during the welding. As an example, 
take the case of 0.20 percent (20-point) carbon steel. If 
it was desired to have a welded joint with the carbon con- 
tent the same, it would probably be best to use a filler that 
had 0.35 percent (35-point) carbon content; and then a 
good deal would depend on the speed at which the work 
was performed and the skill of the operator. 

Fortunately such ideal results are not often necessary 
in practice, and the employment of good filler, as sup- 
plied by firms of repute, will give joints that are of such 
a nature that they will stand the stress and wear of use. 

Steel and iron filling rods should always be kept in a 
dry place to prevent rusting. If they do become rusted 
they must be thoroughly cleaned before using. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 325 

FLUXES 

Some metals do not flow together readily under the 
action of the blowpipe flame. By using a suitable flux 
this difficulty is overcome. A welding flux is a combina- 
tion of chemicals in the form of a powder, which assists 
fusion and either prevents the formation of oxides or 
breaks down oxides when formed. 

Flux should not be sprinkled on the weld, but should 
be applied by dipping the heated filling rod, from time 
to time, into the flux, enough of which will adhere to the 
rod. Flux at all times should be used sparingly. 

Fluxes always should be kept in airtight tins, as some 
absorb moisture and others deteriorate if exposed to the 
air for any length of time. 

For successful welding, it is absolutely necessary that 
the proper flux be used. Fluxes should be purchased 
from a reliable company, preferably from one making a 
specialty of this particular line and recognizing fully 
the conditions to be met. Cheapness should never be a 
guide in the purchase of this material. 

EXECUTION OF WELDS 

General Instructions.—^^ following general instruc- 
tions apply to the welding of all metals and should be 
borne in mind at all times : 

The size of the blowpipe tip to be used for the par- 
ticular job must first be decided on, according to the 
recommendations of the manufacturer. 

Butt Welds. — In the case of a butt weld on metals 
under i/g-inch thickness, where no beveling is necessary, 
the edges of the two parts to be welded are heated at the 
same time and brought to the fusion point. "While this 
is going on, also heat up the filler or welding rod in the 
welding flame, and bring it up to the fusion point at the 
same time with the parts being joined. Now touch the- 



326 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

parts with the melted end of the filler rod and apply the 
hottest part of the flame to the rod. A portion of the rod 
will immediately adhere to the molten part. "Withdraw 
the filler rod and play the blowpipe flame with a ' i figure 
8" motion (see A of Figure 259) on the parts and added 
metal. Get them to flow together. Continue this process 
along the entire line to be welded, making sure that the 
weld penetrates the entire thickness of the metal. 

Whenever possible, the welding flame should be directed 
toward the metal which has been added. After starting 
the weld at a certain point, the blowpipe should be held so 



Emmmm 



Figure 259. — Two Correct Movements to Give the Welding Flame. 

A, Figure 8 Movement, Best Suited to Ordinary Work ; 

Bj Zigzag Movement, Which Some Operators Prefer. 

that the added metal will be piled toward that point, in- 
stead of being scattered away from it along the line to 
be welded.. 

While playing the flame over the weld, it is advisable 
to give the blowpipe a short, sharp twist, so as to make the 
force of the flame push the molten metal quickly to any 
desired spot. This is also helpful in piling up the metal 
a little over the joint. 

Do not confine the heat too much to the line of the 
weld. Let the movement of the blowpipe be such that it 
will heat a small area adjacent to the weld. This ap- 
plies particularly to iron and steel. 

Beveled Plate. — Now take the case of plates that have 
t>een beveled. Hold the blowpipe so that it points, as 
nearly as possible, at the angle illustrated in Figure 260. 
Apply the flame to both sides of the bevel, gradually 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



32T 



bringing the bottom of the "V" to a molten state. Now 
add metal as described in butt-welding, gradually making 
a bath of the molten metal, until the same is level with,, 
or slightly higher than, the surface of the parts to be 




Correct Method of Holding the Blowpipe with Relation 
to the Line of Weld. 




Figure 261. — Incorrect Method of Applying Filling Material. 
Blowpipe Is Also Held at the Wrong Angle with 
Relation to the Line of Weld. 



The 



joined. (See Figure 262.) When the metal operated on 
exceeds %-inch in thickness, the end of the filling rod may 
be plunged into this molten bath, which will gradually 
absorb it and thus increase its own volume. 

Never melt the filling rod when it is not touching or 
plunged into the molten metal. You will never produce a 



328 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

satisfactory weld by allowing melted drops from the 
filling rod to fall on the heated parts. This bad practice 
is illustrated by Figure 261. 

Some operators prefer a zigzag motion as shown in B 
of Figure 259, instead of the "figure 8" motion. 

While spreading the heat is beneficial, yet at the same 
time the weld should be made as quickly as possible, keep- 




Figure 262. — 'Metal Is Slightly Built Up Over the Beveled Joint. 

ing the metal in a molten state as long as is absolutely 
necessary. 

No general rule can be given on how to hold the blow- 
pipe. This will be largely a matter of choice with each 
operator. Use the position which seems most natural. 
The position illustrated in Figure 260 is almost univer- 
sally employed. 

The welding of different kinds of metals very often 
requires different methods, all of which cannot possibly 
be covered under any general rule. 

IRON AND STEEL 

Under this heading are included commercial iron and 
mild or "low carbon" steel. 

The operator will be able to work more intelligently if 
he knows something of the composition and nature of 
these metals. Iron, as a material of construction, is no 
longer used. Practically all of the so-called "wrought 
iron" on the market today is in reality a mild steel. For 
this reason wrought iron and mild steel metals are dis- 
cussed as one. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 329 

"Low Carbon" or Mild Steel is quite ductile and 
malleable, but has a lower tensile strength and lower 
elastic limit than the " high carbon " or hard steels. No 
close distinction can be made between high and low car- 
bon steels, but in general anything below 25-point car- 
bon (0.25 per cent) may be designated as mild steel, while 
those containing more than this amount are either half 
hard or hard. Most of the steels that the operator will 
be called upon to weld are mild. 

Preparation of Parts. — Several methods of preparing 
various kinds of parts to be welded are shown in the ac- 
companying illustrations. 




Figure 263. — Location of Joint When Welding Convex End to Steel 

Cylinder. 

Figure 263 shows a section of one side of a steel cylin- 
der and a convex head which is to be welded on. The 
weld should be made in the straight portion of the cylin- 
der as shown, and not directly at the bend. 

Figure 264 shows the method of accomplishing the 
same result in the case of a concave end. If the parts are 
beveled as shown, the joint will be a strong one. 

When butt-welding two lengths of plate, or when weld- 
ing the longitudinal seam of a cylinder, it is advisable to 
"tack" along the line of weld before commencing on the 
finished weld. This will prevent the overlapping of the 



330 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



sheets at the end farthest away from the point of weld- 
ing. "When starting to weld two lengths of sheet at one 
end, which have previously been placed in proper align- 




Figure 264. — Welding Concave Head in Steel Cylinder. Note that Both 
Head and Shell Are Beveled. 

ment, it will be found that they tend to spread apart, as 
shown in Figure 265. As the welding progresses, this 
spreading movement of the sheets ceases, and later they 
come together again, with a tendency to overlap. 




Figure 265. — Sheets Spreading Apart During Welding, Away from 
Point of Weld. 



"Tacking" (Figure 266) holds the sheets in true align- 
ment and prevents this overlapping. Another method of 
preventing overlapping of the plates, in the case of cylin- 
ders, is to insert a wedge a short distance ahead of the 
weld, moving the wedge as the weld progresses. This 
is shown in Figure 267. 

In some cases when welding a longitudinal seam, it 
will be found advantageous to start to weld in the middle 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



331 



of the seam and work first toward one end and then to- 
ward the other. 

When welding angle iron rings to cylinders, where the 
thicknesses are the same, both edges should be set up as 
shown in Figure 268. When the angle to be welded to 
the plate is thicker than the plate (Figure 269) apply the 




Figure 266. — Sheets "Tacked" Before Welding, to Prevent Spreading 

or Buckling. 




Figure 267. — Wedge Inserted in Split Tube Ahead of Weld, to Prevent 

Overlapping. 



flame more on the angle than on the plate. This will 
tend to bring the parts to the fusion point at the same 
time. Metal must be added as shown by the dotted line. 

When welding a flat end into a tube, prepare the end 
as shown in Figure 270, making a driving fit. 

The welding of flat flanges to tubes is an operation that 
requires care, as the flange is usually considerably thick- 
er than the tube and has to stand a good deal of strain. 



332 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



T7 



V 



Figure 268. — Preparation of Angle Iron and Steel Cylinder of Same 
Thickness Before Welding. 



1 

I 



Figure 269. — Dotted Line Shows How Filling Material Must Be Built. 
Up When Welding Angle to Thinner Section Plate. 




Figure 270. — Preparation of Flat End to Be Welded into Steel Tube. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 333 

The flange and the tube are best prepared as shown in 
Figure 271. The welding flame should play more on the 
flange than on the tube. 

When repairing cracks in plates, always see that the 
crack is beveled through its entire thickness. The plate 
being welded should be free to move. If it is impossible 
to provide for this, instead of attempting to repair the 
crack, use a patch. A patch piece should always be 



TT 



Figure 271. — Preparation of Flange to Be Welded to Thinner Section 

Plate. 



Figure 272. — Patch Plate Bellied and With Edges Beveled Before 

Welding. 

slightly bellied and have edges beveled as indicated in 
Figure 272. 

Selection of Blowpipe Tip. — The size of tip to use for 
welding iron and steel depends upon the thickness of the 
metal and the recommendations of the manufacturer. 
Do not forget that the flame should be neutral at all 
times. 

Filling Material. — For filling in the case of work that 
is not under tension, use Norway or Swedish iron of the 
first quality to get the best results. This is free from slag, 
sulphur, phosphorus, and other impurities. It should be 
remembered that Swedish or Norway iron has a compara- 
tively low tensile strength. However, it is very ductile 
(elastic) and hence is very suitable for welding. In the 
case of mild steel work that is in tension, it is advisable to 



334 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

use filling material that will produce a joint of the same 
quality and nature as the material operated on ; or even 
use a filler of vanadium or nickel steel, so that the re- 
sulting weld will be as strong or stronger than the rest 
of the part. Filling material used on iron or steel should 
never exceed % inch in thickness. For thin work never 
, use a filler thicker than the metal to be welded. 

Flux. — The use of a flux is not necessary in welding 
wrought iron or steel. 

Execution of Welds. — The general instructions already 
given under this head apply in the welding of wrought 
iron and steel. The end of the small white cone should 
be allowed to just touch the metal. 

Treatment After Welding. — Annealing or hammering, 
or both, will improve the quality of steel welds. Welds 
preferably should be treated in this manner wherever 
great strength is desired. The hammering should be 
done with the metal at a yellow white heat. Hammering 
at a dull red heat is likely to produce cracks or fissures in 
the welded portion. Before hammering, it is necessary to 
reheat the work thoroughly to the proper color. The 
welded part may then be annealed by heating to a cherry 
red heat and allowing to cool naturally. 

SHEET ALUMINUM 

Sheet aluminum is as a rule pure metal, and has to be 
handled somewhat differently from an alloy. Where 
welding has to be done, the sheets are very rarely over y 8 
inch in thickness. If they are, they can be welded in the 
same way as castings, except that the pure drawn alum- 
inum rod must be used as a filler and sheet aluminum 
flux used. Preheating is seldom necessary and any re- 
heating or annealing that may be deemed advisable along 
the line of weld can be done with the blowpipe flame, 
using a slight excess of acetylene. Beveling of the plates 
before welding has hardly ever to be done, and practice 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 335 

will show that the plates tend to bevel themselves as they 
come up to the melting point along the line of weld. 

The welding of aluminum sheets below Vs i nc h i n 
thickness will be found to be a somewhat delicate opera- 
tion, and a good deal of practice is required before sound, 
neat joints can be made. The process is somewhat sim- 
ilar to lead burning, and a lead burner rapidly becomes 
efficient in welding thin aluminum sheets. 

Blowpipe. — To facilitate the operation it is desirable to 
use a light blowpipe of the type shown in Figure 273. This 
style of blowpipe, together with some light-weight hose 
and a regulating block, is supplied by many manuf actur- 




Figure 273. — Type of Light Blowpipe Suitable for Welding Sheet 
Aluminum, Lead Burning, Etc., Showing Bench Block at the Left. 

ers of equipment as an accessory to the standard equip- 
ment employed on general work. "When using this light 
blowpipe, the rubber hose from the regulators is connect- 
ed up to the bench block instead of direct to the blowpipe, 
and the adjustments that would be made at the blow- 
pipe with the standard equipment are made at the bench 
regulating block instead. The needle valve control at the 
oxygen inlet on the small blowpipe provides additional 
facility for maintaining a non-oxidizing flame. 

Preparation of Work. — Sheets between ^ inch and 
% inch in thickness need not be beveled or flanged. Sheets 
iV inch thick and under should be flanged to a height of 
1 to 11/2 times the thickness of the metal. Clean the work 
thoroughly and have it bright along the line of weld. 

For quantity work, the manufacture of sets of good 
heavy clamps will well repay the outlay, and will help 



336 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

secure sound, neat work. Figure 258 shows the type of 
clamp or tongs that should be used when aluminum 
sheets are flanged. 

Preheating. — Preheating of sheet aluminum prior to 
welding is only necessary occasionally, and then only to 
counteract movements of the plates due to expansion. 

Filling Material. — Pure aluminum rod or wire must be 
used. When work is flanged, no filler is necessary. 

Flux. — A proved brand of sheet aluminum flux must 
be employed. The flux is best if it contains no acid or 
alkali, which might have a corroding effect if traces were 
left in the body of the weld or on the surface of the 
sheets. 

Most fluxes for sheet aluminum can only be used in a 
dry form. When used dry, it is applied by dipping the 
heated filling rod into the powder, when sufficient will 
adhere for application at one time. Some fluxes can be 
used wet or dry, but before application by the wet method 
is tried, assurance should be obtained from the source 
of supply that the flux is suitable to be used wet. 

To use the flux in a wet form, it is mixed with clean 
water in sufficient quantity to produce a mixture of cream 
consistency. To apply, use a piece of clean rag or cloth, 
dip in the flux, and apply along both edges of the metal to 
be joined ; let the flux be applied at least % inch away 
from the line of weld. This effectually removes surface 
oxide. Then apply a second coating with a small, stiff 
brush. Any further flux required to obtain uniform 
flow of metal can be added by dipping the filling rod in 
the mixture. 

Execution of Welds. — Careful regulation of the blow- 
pipe flame is necessary. A slight excess of acetylene is 
recommended. Avoid contact between the metal and 
the white cone of the flame. It will be found that the 
first fusion of the metal takes some time, due to loss of 
heat by conductivity, and on this account the rate of 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 337 

welding will increase as the work progresses and as the 
edges ahead are gradually heated by conductivity. 

For sheets -^ inch thick a blowpipe tip consuming 
about 2 cubic feet of acetylene per hour will be found 
suitable. With this size, quick diffusion is obtained be- 
fore conductivity has had time to diffuse the heat. With 
thicker sheets, conductivity absorbs a great deal of the 
heat, and a larger blowpipe tip must be used, in order to 
procure rapid fusion and prevent oxidization, which will 
take place if the weld is made slowly. With sheet alum- 
inum, expansion troubles are not so difficult to deal with 
as is the case with iron or steel, due to the fact that the 
high conductivity of the metal tends to even up the dis- 
tribution of the heat in the whole. 

Treatment After Welding. — Owing to the high con- 
ductivity of the metal and consequent even distribution 
of the heat, contraction does not as a rule cause cracking. 
Eemember, the metal is fragile at temperatures near the 
melting point, and should therefore be carefully handled 
while cooling, which should take place slowly and away 
from draughts. Do not be in too great a hurry to re- 
move clamps. 

After the work is cold, wash away with water any 
traces of flux on the surface. Inferior flux might, if left 
on the surface, have a corroding effect on the metal, and 
any flux left on the surface would be injurious to paint 
work and cause it to scale. 

Cold hammering along the line of weld, after the flux 
is removed, is good practice ; it gives texture and grain 
to the weld. A spring power hammer is good for this 
work if available. Subsequent annealing will remove 
hammer marks. 

COPPER 

Heat radiates from copper very rapidly, and as copper 
is also an exceptionally good conductor of heat, it is found 



338 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

that the heat of the blowpipe flame alone, when dealing 
with large masses of copper, is not sufficient to keep up 
the fusion. Therefore, in order to keep up fusion, it is 
necessary to preheat and to use a continued application 
of heat at or near the point of weld by another source, in 
addition to the blowpipe. 

Preparation of Work. — Copper parts are prepared for 
welding in a manner similar to that for steel and iron. 
Use a larger blowpipe tip than for the same thickness of 
steel. 

The work, as much as possible, should be covered with 
asbestos, to prevent radiation. Copper when heated 
has very little strength, so that work to be welded 
must be left free to move; otherwise the contraction of 
the cooling metal may cause a fracture. For instance, 
when welding together two long lengths of copper pipe, 
the pipe should be supported on rollers, so that it may 
move freely and prevent undue strain on the weld while 
cooling. In welding long lengths of copper together, it 
is well to wrap wet asbestos around the part a little bit 
away from the weld, and keep it wet during the welding 
operation. This prevents the welding heat being con- 
ducted throughout the total length of the pieces, in- 
suring the least possible expansion and contraction while 
cooling is going on. 

Filling Material. — For all classes of work, a phosphor 
copper filling rod should be employed. Phosphorus is 
one of the best deoxidizing agents for copper. 

Copper when molten oxidizes very rapidly, and the 
process is so intense that the metal may actually be trans- 
formed into an alloy of copper and copper oxide. Phos- 
phorus, when added to the molten metal in the form of 
"phosphor copper," rapidly diffuses and destroys the 
oxide, forming phosphoric acid, which will dissolve more 
oxide. A slag forms, which rises to the surface and 
forms a protective film. The phosphorus also prevents 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 339 

the absorption of gases in the molten mass, thus insuring 
a weld free from blowholes. 

The percentage of phosphorus in the filler is very small, 
just sufficient to obtain metal free from oxide. A metal 
containing too much phosphorus lacks fluidity, and melts 
at a lower temperature than pure copper; and if used 
will probably produce the defect of adhesion in the weld 
and be the source of structural defects, in addition to 
reducing the electrical conductivity. 

Flux. — A flux must be used when welding copper. Em- 
ploy the same flux as for welding brass. This should be 
used sparingly. 

Execution of Welds. — The filling material must never 
be added until the edges of the parts to be welded are in 
a molten condition. The operation must proceed rapidly, 
to prevent the heat from spreading. 

BRASS 

The welding of brass is quite simple. Preheating is 
not necessary, except from an economical point of view. 
Use special flux for brass and bronze. As a filling ma- 
terial, use the best grade of brass spelter. Where great 
strength is desired, Tobin bronze may be used with the 
brass flux. The weld should be made rapidly, but the 
white cone of the flame should not be allowed to touch the 
metal. 

LEAD 

Lead can be readily welded. The process, however, is 
usually known as "lead burning." The oxy-acetylene 
process provided a means of doing this work faster and 
at lower cost than is possible by other means. Skill in 
the manipulation of the blowpipe is necessary on vertical 
seams. A "lead burner," if not prejudiced, will quickly 
attain such skill when using these gases as to prove the 



340 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



superiority of the process. A light blowpipe, as illus- 
trated in Figure 273, should be used. 

When welding sheet or plates, proceed as in lead burn- 
ing by other processes. 

The burned joint on a lead or block tin pipe-line is not 
only a neat and permanent joint, but with a little practice 
can be made in much less time, with a considerable sav- 
ing in labor, material and fuel. 




Figure 274. — Method of Preparing Lead Pipe Ends for Burning. 

Another large advantage in many cases is that a lead 
line thus joined is all lead, and a block tin line is all 
block tin. The joints are fused together with the addi- 
tion of enough metal of the same kind. If, for instance, a 
lead pipe-line is to carry acid, the burned joints con- 
tain no solder which could be attacked by the acid. 




Figure 275. — The Finished Lead Pipe Joint. 



Figure 274 shows the method of preparing lead pipe 
for welding. Note that the two pipe ends are scraped 
clean in the vicinity of the burn, and are tapered slightly 
at the edges. It is not necessary to drive one pipe into 
the other. The two ends are merely placed in contact 
and burned with the addition of more lead to fill up the 
joint. No flux, no grease, and no " wiping " of any kind 
is needed. Notice the neatness of the finished joint, Fig- 
ure 275. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 
TABLE OF APPROXIMATE WELDING RESULTS 



341 



The following is an approximate welding table, as used 
by The Prest-O-Lite Co., Inc., for its Type H blowpipe : 



Tip 

No. 


Tip 
Drill 

Size 


Gas consumption 
Cu. ft. per hour 


Thickness of 
Metal 


Blow-pipe pressures 
Lbs. per sq. in. 


Lineal feet 
welded 
per hour 


Oxygen 


Acetylene 


Oxygen 


Acetylene 


1H 
2H 
3H 
4H 
5H 
6H 
7H 


69 
60 
55 
52 
49 
44 
35 


3 to 4 
6 to 8fc 
10 to 12i 
12 to 21 
18 to 28 
24 to 40 
35 to 54 


3 to 4 
6 to 8 
10 to 12 
12 to 20 
18 to 26 
24 to 38 
35 to 50 


32 to e\ in. 
3^ to 3 3 2 in. 

| to 3 6 g in. 
^e to 3 7 o in. 

i to ! 5 j in. 

1 to /e in- 
\ in. and up 


2 to 3 

2 to 3 

3 to 4 

4 to 6 

5 to 7 
8 to 11 
10 to 15 


2 to 3 

2 to 3 

3 to 4 

4 to 5 

5 to 6 
8 to 9 

10 to 14 


30 to 35 
24 to 32 
12 to 16 
9 to 12 
6 to 8 
4£ to 6 
2 to 3 


7J 
8J 


35 
31 


35 to 54 

40 to 60 


35 to 50 
40 to 55 


£ in. and up 
£ in. and up 


9 to 13 
9 to 14 


9 to 12 
9 to 13 


Not used 
on plates 
Not used 
on plates 



The figures quoted in the above table are based on 
straight work on steel plate, beveled when over % inch 
in thickness and welded without preheating. 

The gas pressures given are only approximate, and are 
quoted merely as a guide to the beginner who has had no 
practice experience. After a few days the operator will 
learn to regulate his flame without paying any particular 
attention to the pressure gauges on the regulators. In 
general, use the high pressures for cast iron and lower 
pressures on steel plates. 

The reader should not get the impression from the 
above table that %-inch thickness is the limit of welding. 

HINTS ON OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING 

It may be taken as a standard in the case of sheet or 
plate welding in iron or steel, that for each ^ of an inch 
in thickness an approximate hourly consumption of 5 
cubic feet of acetylene and 5% cubic feet of oxygen will 
be necessary. These figures are useful to bear in mind 
when estimating for welding work. 



342 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Welds on sections up to % inch in thickness should al- 
ways be made as rapidly as possible. The size of blow- 
pipe given in the foregoing table for different thicknesses 
of metal apply to the average welder. A really skilled 
welder, who is on " repeat ' ' work, would probably be able 
to use a size larger blowpipe tip than is quoted in the 
table, due to his continuous experience on the particular 
job and his ability to control the molten metal better than 
a less skilled or less practical operator. 

Any correctly adjusted, neutral oxy-acetylene flame 
gives a temperature of approximately 6,300° Fahr., no 
matter what size tip is used. The larger tips are used, 
of course, on the heavier sections of metal, since they pro- 
duce a larger flame and a greater volume of heat, though 
not a greater degree of heat. 

Some metals require a larger flame. for the same thick- 
ness of material than others. This may be due to : First, 
a high melting point ; second, a high specific heat, that is, 
a greater ability to absorb heat ; third, a higher heat con- 
ductivity, that is, a greater ability to spread the applied 
heat rapidly throughout the whole of the piece being 
welded. 

OXY-ACETYLENE CUTTING 

The cutting blowpipe is commonly used for cutting 
through various thicknesses of wrought iron and steel up 
to 14 inches. (Wrought iron and steel are- the only metals 
that can be cut by this process.) As an adjunct to a weld- 
ing equipment, it is used for beveling and for cutting out 
patches and holes. It also has many uses in destructive 
and constructive work. 

The process is based on the fact that a jet of oxygen 
directed upon a previously heated spot of iron or steel, 
causes it to ignite, with the result that the metal, acting 
as its own fuel, burns away rapidly in the form of iron 
oxide. A special blowpipe is provided for this work. 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



343 



The oxygen cutting blowpipe cannot be used for weld- 
ing, any more than can the welding blowpipe be used for 
cutting. 

The same source of gas supply is used as for welding. 
The same acetylene regulator is used. 

The oxygen regulator for welding can be used for 
cutting on work up to V/2 inch in thickness. 

The cutting blowpipe is connected to the gas supply 
through the regulator in exactly the same way as the 
welding blowpipe. 

Types of Blowpipe Used. — There are two kinds of oxy- 
acetylene cutting blowpipes, known as the central jet and 




GUIDE WHEEL 
CARRIAGE 



Figure 276. — Oxy-Acetylene Cutting Blowpipe (Central Jet Type) ; 
SA, 2B, IB, Internal Tips. 



following jet types. The central jet type has a number 
of oxy-acetylene heating flames surrounding a central 
hole, through which oxygen only passes. The following 
jet type consists of one oxy-acetylene heating and one 
oxygen jet. The holes for these jets are usually drilled in 
the same tip, but sometimes have separate tips, which are 
set close together. 

Adjustment and Operation. — Figure 276 illustrates 
the principles of operation of an oxy-acetylene cutting 
blowpipe of central jet type. 

The oxygen and acetylene supplies are connected up 



344 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

through the regulators and rubber hose to the hose 
nipples on the blowpipe at V and M . 

To start work with the cutting blowpipe after con- 
necting up, open the valves of both oxygen and acetylene 
cylinders slowly. Close the outlet valve on both regulators. 
Turn the oxygen pressure regulating screw to the right, to 
the pressure recommended for the thickness of metal to be 
cut. Adjust the acetylene regulator until the working 




Figure 277. — Point of Start (A) When Cutting Circular Hole in Plate. 

gauge shows proper pressure. Open fully the outlet 
valves on both regulators. Turn on slightly the acetylene 
at the blowpipe by means of needle valve J of Figure 276. 
Light the blowpipe. Slightly open oxygen needle valve 
K and adjust until a neutral heating flame is obtained. 
Next press down lever E. This permits the cutting oxy- 
gen to pass to the tip. Observe if the heating flame re- 
mains neutral. If not, adjust at J and K. If when E 
is pressed down, there is a fall in the working pressure on 
the oxygen supply, as indicated on the pressure gauge, 
adjust at the regulator until the pressure is right. This 
should be done while E is pressed down. The blowpipe is 



OXY-ACETYLEXE WELDIXG AXD CUTTIXG 



345 



then ready for work. While work is progressing, E may 
be locked in position by means of lock F. 

When the cutting operation is once under way, the 
heating and cutting proceed together. The cutting oper- 
ation is very simple and can be mastered in a few hours. 

One inner tip may cover quite a range of thicknesses 




Figure 278. — Oxy-Acetylene Welding in the Manufacture of Metal 
Furniture. A Typical Scene in a Large Shop, 



of metal, but the pressure of the oxygen supply will have 
to be varied in each case. The figures quoted in the in- 
structions issued by the manufacturer should be followed 
closely. It should be appreciated that the oxygen pres- 
sure has to be made sufficiently strong, so that it will blow 
away the iron oxide, insuring a clean, narrow cut being 
made through the metal. 



346 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The Heating Flame. — The size of the heating flame 
must be adjusted for each thickness of work to be cut. It 
is impossible to give any hard and fast rule as to the size 




Figure 279.— ;Weldmg Outfit with Light Blowpipe in Operation. Thi* 
Outfit Is. Especially Used for Small Repeat Work at the Bench and for 
Lead Burning. Note the Benrh Block, Where the First Regulation or 
Adjustment of the Welding Flame Is Made. 



of the flame. The operator must, if necessary, gradually 
increase the size of the heating flame, by opening the 
acetylene needle valve and heating oxygen needle valve 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 



347 



on the blowpipe, until the rate of cutting agrees with 
the figures given in the Cutting Table furnished by the 
manufacturer of the blowpipe. Bear in mind, however, 
that these figures are intended for work on clean plates, 
and that when the work to be cut is rusty or covered with 
scale the rate of cutting will be considerably slower. 




Figure 280. — The Oxy-Acetylene Welding Process Employed on Sheet 
Steel Work. Note the Goggles and Gauntlets of the Workmen. 



How to Cut, — Cutting may be made to follow any de- 
sired line. When special forms and shapes have to be 
cut, it is advisable to use a special mechanical contrivance 
with which to steady and guide the blowpipe, and thus 
insure a clean cut. Hold the blowpipe tip about 14 inch 
away from the surface of the metal to be cut. 

This blowpipe is provided with a set of guide wheels 
which may be attached to the outer nozzle by means of 



348 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



set screws. The distance between the blowpipe nozzle 
and the surface of the work can be adjusted by means of 
the outer set screws. 




Figure 281. — Welding by the Oxy-Acetylene Process of a Double- 
Jacketed Steel Tank Used for Heating Purposes. 

A cut should start from the edge of the metal whenever 
possible. When it is desired to cut a piece out of the 
center of a plate, start inside the circumference of the 



OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING AND CUTTING 349 

piece to be cut (Figure 277). On thick plate, where the 
cut cannot be started from the edge, it may be necessary 
to drill a. hole to get a quick start. 

Precautions. — Certain precautions are necessary before 
the operator starts to work on a piece of metal. A bucket 




Figure 282.- — The Oxy-Acetylene Process of Lead Burning, as Used on 
Flat Sheet Work. 

of water should be near at hand, for cooling the cutting 
tip when necessary. Both oxygen and acetylene should 
be shut off at the blowpipe, to extinguish the flame, before 
dipping the tip of the blowpipe into the water. To expel 
any steam formed inside the tip, turn on the oxygen 



350 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



valves at the blowpipe, and allow oxygen to flow for a 
moment before turning on the acetylene and lighting. 

When an operator is working in a confined place, such 
as inside a boiler, he should have an attendant to turn 
off the gas supplies at the cylinders if necessary. It is 
also advisable under these conditions to employ armored 
fireproof hose. 

If the blowpipe tip becomes obstructed in any way, 
due to beads of iron being splashed over it, or from any 
other cause, a copper wire or copper wire brush should be 
used to clean it. No sharp or hard instrument should be 
employed. 

Colored-lens glasses or goggles should be used to protect 
the eyes of the operator from the glare and from particles 
of burned metal. Gauntlets of asbestos or other protec- 
tive material are also advisable. 



TABLE OF APPROXIMATE CUTTING RESULTS 

The following table shows approximate results obtained 
with cutting blowpipes furnished by The Prest-O-Lite 
Co., Inc. : 





Size of 














Internal 


Size of Internal 


Oxygen 


Lineal 


Oxygen 


Acetylene 


Thickness 


Nozzle 


Nozzle 


pressure 


feet cut 


consump'n 


consump'n 


of steel 


TypeB 


Type K Cutter 


lbs. per 


per hour* 


cu.ft.perhr. 


cu.ft.perhr. 




Cutter 




sq. in. 




(approx.) 


(approx.) 


% 




lAorl 


7 


90 


35 


13 


K 




lAcrl 


10 


71 


40 


14 


% 




lAorl 


25 


60 


58 


16 


% 




lAor 1 


30 


49 


76 


18 


1 




lAorl 


35 


40 


94 


21 


1% 


2 


2Aor 1 


40 


33 


116 


29 


2 


2 


2Aor 1 


50 


29 


225 


36 


3 


2 


2Aor2 


60 


24 


289 


37 


4 


3 


3Aor2 


65 


20 


357 


38 


5 


3 


3Aor3 


75 


17 


422 


39 


6 


3 


3Aor3 


85 


14 


488 


40 


7 


4 


4A or 4 


100 


12 


622 


41 


10 


4 


4A or 4 


150 


6 


1020 


46 



* These results are based on plate with clean surface and in 
position where the operator can work on straight cuts without 
any difficulties. 



VIII 

ELECTEIC WELDING 

Two distinct forms of electric welding apparatus are in 
use, one producing heat by the resistance of the metal 
being treated to the passage of the electric current, the 
other using the heat of the electric arc. 

The resistance process is of the greatest use in manu- 
facturing lines where there is a large quantity of one 
kind of work to do — many thousand pieces of one kind, 
for instance. The arc method may be applied in prac- 
tically any case where any other form of weld may be 
made. The resistance process will be described first. 

Resistance Method. — It is a well known fact that a poor 
conductor of electricity will offer so much resistance to 
the flow of electricity that it will heat. Copper is a good 
conductor, and a bar of iron, a comparatively poor con- 
ductor, when placed between heavy copper conductors of 
a welder, becomes heated in attempting to carry the large 
volume of current. The degree of heat depends on the 
amount of current and the resistance of the conductor. 

In an electric circuit the ends of two pieces of metal 
brought together form the point of greatest resistance in 
the electric circuit, and the abutting ends instantly be- 
gin to heat. The hotter this metal becomes, the greater 
the resistance to the flow of current ; consequently, as the 
edges of the abutting ends heat, the current is forced into 
the adjacent cooler parts, until there is a uniform heat 
throughout the entire mass. The heat is first developed 
in the interior of the metal, so that it is welded there as 
perfectly as at the surface. 

351 



352 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



The electric welder (Figure 283) is built to hold the 
parts to be joined between two heavy copper dies or con- 
tacts. A current of three to five volts, but of very great 
volume (amperage), is allowed to pass across these dies, 




Figure 283. — Electric Spot Welding Machine. 



and in going through the metal to be welded, heats the 
edges to a welding temperature. 

Voltage and Amperage. — It may be explained that the 
voltage of an electric current measures the pressure or 
force with which it is being sent through the circuit and 
has nothing to do with the quantity or volume passing. 
Amperes measure the rate at which the current is pass- 
ing through the circuit, and consequently give a measure 
of the quantity which passes in any given time. Volts 



ELECTRIC WELDING 353 

correspond to water pressure measured by pounds to 
the square inch; amperes represent the flow in gallons 
per minute. The low voltage used in this electric welder 
avoids all danger to the operator, this pressure not being 
sufficient to be felt even with the hands resting on the 
copper contacts. 

Current is supplied to the welding machine at a higher 
voltage and lower amperage than is actually used between 
the dies, the low voltage and high amperage being pro- 
duced by a transformer incorporated in the machine 
itself. By means of windings of suitable size wire, the 
outside current may be received at voltages ranging from 
110 to 550 and converted to the low pressure needed. 

Alternating Current Used. — The source of current for 
the resistance welder must be alternating, that is, the 
current must first be negative in value and then positive, 
passing from one extreme to the other at rates varying 
from 25 to 133 times a second. This form is known as 
alternating current, as opposed to direct current, in 
which there is no changing of positive and negative. 

The current must also be what is known as single phase r 
that is, a current which rises from zero in value to the 
highest point as a positive current and then recedes to 
zero before rising to the highest point of negative value. 
Two-phase or three-phase currents would give two or 
three positive impulses during this time. 

As long as the current is single phase alternating, the 
voltage and cycles (number of alternations per second) 
may be anything convenient. Various voltages and cycles 
are taken care of by specifying all these points when de- 
signing the transformer which is to handle the current. 

Direct current is not used, because there is no way of 
reducing the voltage conveniently without placing re- 
sistance wires in the circuit, and this uses power without 
producing useful work. Direct current may be changed 
to alternating by having a direct current motor 



354 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

running an alternating current dynamo, or the change 
may be made by a rotary converter, although this last 
method is not so satisfactory as the first. 

Voltage Must Be Constant. — The voltage used in weld- 
ing being so low to start with, it is absolutely necessary 
that it be maintained at the correct point. If the source of 
current supply is not of ample capacity for the welder 
being used, it will be very hard to avoid a fall of voltage 
when the current is forced to pass through the high re- 
sistance of the weld. The current voltage for various 
work is calculated accurately, and the efficiency of the 
outfit depends to a great extent on the voltage being 
constant. 

A simple test for fall of voltage is made by connecting 
an incandescent electric lamp across the supply lines at 
-some point near the welder. The lamp should burn with 
the same brilliancy when the weld is being made as at 
any other time. If the lamp burns dim at any time, it 
indicates a drop in voltage, and this condition should 
be corrected. 

Dynamo. — The dynamo furnishing the alternating cur- 
rent may be in the same building with the welder and 
operated from a direct current motor, as mentioned 
above, or operated from any convenient shafting or 
source of power. When the dynamo is a part of the 
welding plant, it should be placed as close to the weld- 
ing machine as possible, because the length of the wire 
used affects the voltage appreciably. 

Rheostat. — In order to hold the voltage constant the 
Toledo Electric Welder Company has devised connections 
which include a rheostat to insert a variable resistance in 
the field windings of the dynamo, so that the voltage may 
be increased by cutting this resistance out at the proper 
time. An auxiliary switch is connected to the welder 
switch, so that both switches act together. When the weld- 
er switch is closed in making a weld, that portion of the 



ELECTRIC WELDING 



355- 



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356 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

rheostat resistance between two arms determining tho 
voltage is short circuited. This lowers the resistance and 
the field magnets of the dynamo are made stronger go 
that additional voltage is provided to care for the re- 
sistance in the metal being heated. 

Operating Parts. — A typical machine is shown in the 
accompanying cut (Figure 284). On top of the welder 
are two jaws for holding the ends of the pieces to be 
welded. The lower part of the jaw is rigid, while the top is 
brought down on top of the work, acting as a clamp. 



Figure 285. — Detail of Water-Cooled Spot Welding Head. 

These jaws carry the copper dies through which the cur- 
rent enters the work being handled. After the work is 
clamped between the jaws, the upper set is forced closer 
to the lower set by a long compression lever. The cur- 
rent being turned on with the surfaces of the work in con- 
tact, they immediately heat to the welding point, when 
added pressure on the lever forces them together and 
completes the weld. 

The transformer is carried in the base of the machine, 
and on the left-hand side is a regulator for controlling 
the voltage for various kinds of work. The clamps are 
applied by treadles, convenient to the foot of the operator. 
A treadle is provided which instantly releases both jaws 
upon the completion of the weld. 

One or both of the copper dies may be cooled by a 
stream of water circulating through it from the city water 
mains (Figure 285). The regulator and switch give the 
operator control of the heat, anything from a dull red to 



ELECTRIC WELDING 35T 

the melting point being easily obtained by movement of 
the lever (Figure 286). 

Welding. — It is not necessary to give the metal to be 
welded any special preparation, although when very 
rusty or covered with scale, the rust and scale should be 
removed sufficiently to allow good contact of clean metal 




Figure 286. — Welding Head of a Water-Cooled Electric Welder. 

on the copper dies. The cleaner and better the stock r 
the less current it takes, and there is less wear on the dies. 
The dies should be kept firm and tight in their holders to 
make a good contact. All bolts and nuts fastening the 
electrical contacts should be clean and tight at all times. 
Removal of Scale. — The scale may be removed from 
forgings by immersing them in a pickling solution in a 
wood, stone, or lead-lined tank. 



358 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

The solution is made with five gallons of commercial 
sulphuric acid in 150 gallons of water. To get the quick- 
est and best results from this method, the solution should 
be kept as near the boiling point as possible, by having 
a coil of extra heavy lead pipe running inside the tank 
and carrying live steam. A very few minutes in this 
bath will remove the scale, and the parts should then be 
washed in running water. After this washing they 
should be dipped into a bath of 50 pounds of unslaked 
lime in 150 gallons of water to neutralize any trace of 
acid. 

Iron and Steel. — Cast iron cannot be commercially 
welded, as it is high in carbon and silicon, and passes sud- 
denly from a crystalline to a fluid state when brought to 
the welding temperature. With steel or wrought iron 
the temperature must be kept below the melting point to 
avoid injury to the metal. The metal must be heated 
•quickly and pressed together with sufficient force to push 
all burnt metal out of the joint. 

High carbon steel can be welded, but must be annealed 
after welding to overcome the strains set up by the heat 
being applied at one place. Good results are hard to 
obtain when the carbon runs as high as 75-point (0.75), 
and steel of this class can only be handled by an experi- 
enced operator. If the steel is below 25-point (0.25) in 
carbon content, good welds will always be the result. 
To -weld high carbon to low carbon steel, the stock should 
be clamped in the dies with the low carbon stock stick- 
ing considerably farther out from the die than the high 
carbon stock. Nickel steel welds readily, the nickel in- 
creasing the strength of the weld. 

Copper and Brass. — Iron and copper inay be welded 
together by reducing the size of the copper end where it 
comes in contact with the iron. When welding copper 
and brass the pressure must be less than when welding 
iron. The metal is allowed to actually fuse or melt at 



ELECTRIC WELDING 359^ 

the juncture, and the pressure must be sufficient to force 
the burned metal out. The current is cut off at the 
instant the metal ends begin to soften, this being done 
by means of an automatic switch which opens when the 
softening of the metal allows the ends to come together. 
The pressure is applied to the weld by having the slid- 
ing jaw moved by a weight on the end of an arm. 

Copper and brass require a larger volume of current at 
a lower voltage than for steel and iron. The die faces 
are set apart three times the diameter of the stock for 
brass and four times the diameter for copper. 

Light gauges of sheet steel can be welded to heavjr 
gauges or to solid bars of steel by "spot" welding, which 
will be described later. Galvanized iron can be welded,, 
but the zinc coating will be burned off. Sheet steel can 
be welded to cast iron, but will pull apart, tearing out 
particles of the iron. 

Sheet copper and sheet brass may be welded, although 
this work requires more experience than with iron and 
steel. Some grades of sheet aluminum can be spot-welded 
if the slight roughness left on the surface under the die 
is not objectionable. 

Butt Welding. — This is the process which joins the 
ends of two pieces of metal as described in the foregoing 
part of this section. The ends are in plain sight of the 
operator at all times and it can easily be seen when the 
metal reaches the welding heat and begins to soften (Fig- 
ure 287). It is at this point that the pressure must be 
applied with the lever and the ends forced together in 
the weld. 

The parts are placed in the clamping jaws (Figure 
288) with % to % i nc h °f metal extending beyond the 
jaw. The ends of the metal touch each other and the 
current is turned on by means of a switch. To raise the 
ends to the proper heat requires from 3 seconds for 
%-inch rods to 35 seconds for a IVo-inch bar. 



360 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



This method is applicable to metals having practically 
the same area of metal to be brought into contact on each 
end. When such parts are forced together a slight pro- 
jection will be left in the form of a fin, or an enlarged 
portion called an upset. 

The degree of heat required for any work is found by 
moving the handle of the regulator one way or the other 




Figure 287. — Electric Butt Welder. 



wrhile testing several parts. When this setting is right 
the work can continue as long as the same sizes are be- 
ing handled. 

Copper, brass, tool steel and all other metals that are 
harmed by high temperatures must be heated quickly and 
pressed together with sufficient force to force all burned 
metal from the weld. 

In case it is desired to make a weld in the form of a 



ELECTRIC WELDING 



361 



capital letter T, it is necessary to heat the part cor- 
responding to the top bar of the T to a bright red, then 
bring the lower bar to the preheated one and again turn 
on the current, when a weld can be quickly made. 

Spot Welding. — This is a method of joining metal 
sheets together at any desired point by a welded spot 
about the size of a rivet. It is done on a spot welder 




Figure 288. — Clamping Dies of an Electric Butt Welder. 



(Figures 283, 284), by fusing the metal at the point de- 
sired and at the same instant applying sufficient pressure- 
to force the particles of molten metal together. The dies 
are usually placed one above the other, so that the work 
may rest on the lower one while the upper one is brought 
down on top of the upper sheet to be welded. 

One of the dies is usually pointed slightly, the oppos- 
ing one being left flat. The pointed die leaves a slight 
indention on one side of the metal, while the other side is 
left smooth. The dies may be reversed, so that the out- 



362 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

side surface of any work may be left smooth. The cur- 
rent is allowed to flow through the dies by a switch, which 
is closed after pressure is applied to the work. 

There is a limit to the thickness of sheet metal that 
can be welded by this process, because of the fact that 
the copper rods can only carry a certain quantity of 
current without becoming unduly heated themselves. 
Another reason is that it is difficult to make heavy sec- 
tions of metal touch at the welding point without ex- 
cessive pressure. 

Lap Welding is the process used when two pieces of 
metal are caused to overlap and when brought to a weld- 
ing heat are forced together by passing through rollers, 
or under a press, thus leaving the welded joint practically 
the same thickness as the balance of the work. 

Where it is desirable to make a continuous seam, a 
special machine is required, or an attachment for one 
of the other types. In this form of work the stock must 
be thoroughly cleaned and is then passed between cop- 
per rollers which act in the same capacity as the copper 
dies. 

Other Applications, — Hardening and tempering can 
"be done by clamping the work in the welding dies and 
setting the control and time to bring the metal to the 
proper color, when it is cooled in the usual manner. 

Brazing is done by clamping the work in the jaws and 
heating until the flux, then the spelter, has melted and 
run into the joint. Eiveting and heating of rivets can 
be done by bringing the dies down on opposite ends of 
the rivet after it has been inserted in the hole, the dies 
being shaped to form the heads properly. 

Hardened steel may be softened and annealed so that 
it can be machined by connecting the dies of the welder 
to each side of the point to be softened. The current is 
then applied until the work has reached a point at which 
it will soften when cooled. 



ELECTRIC WELDING 



363 



TROUBLES AND REMEDIES 

The following methods have been furnished by the 
Toledo Electric Welder Company and are recommended 
for this class of work whenever necessary. 

To Locate Grounds in the Primary or High Voltage 
Side of the Circuit. — Connect incandescent lamps in 
series by means of a long piece of lamp cord, as shown in 
Figure 289. For 110 volts use one lamp, for 220 volts use 
two lamps, and for 440 volts use four lamps. Attach one 
end of the lamp cord to one side of the switch, and close 



£20 Volts fOOOOOO 

n 




Figure 289. — Method of Testing Electric Welder. 

the switch. Take the other end of the cord in the hand 
and press it against some part of the welder frame where 
the metal is clean and bright. Paint, grease and dirt 
act as insulators and prevent electrical contact. If the 
lamp lights, the circuit is in electrical contact with the 
frame ; in other words, grounded. If the lamps do not 
light, connect the wire to a terminal block, die or slide. 
If the lamps then light, the circuit, coils or leads are in 
electrical contact with the large coil in the transformer 
or its connections. 

If, however, the lamps do not light in either case, the 
lamp cord should be disconnected from the switch and 
connected to the other side, and the operations of con- 



364 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

necting to welder frame, dies, terminal blocks, etc., as 
explained above, should be repeated. If the lamps light 
at any of these connections, a "ground" is indicated. 
' ' Grounds ? ' can usually be found by carefully tracing the 
primary circuit until a place is found where the insula- 
tion is defective. Reinsulate and make the above tests 
again to make sure everything is clear. If the ground 
can not be located by observation, the various parts of the 
primary circuit should be disconnected, and the trans- 
former, switch, regulator, etc., tested separately. 

To Locate a Ground in the Regulator or Other Part. — 
Disconnect the lines running to the welder from the 
switch. The test lamps used in the previous tests are 
connected, one end of lamp cord to the switch, the other 
end to a binding post of the regulator. Connect the other 
side of the switch to some part of the regulator housing. 
(This must be a clean connection to a bolt head or the 
paint should be scraped off.) Close the switch. If the 
lamps light, the regulator winding or some part of the 
switch is "grounded" to the iron base or core of the 
regulator. If the lamps do not light, this part of the 
apparatus is clear. 

This test can be easily applied to any part of the weld- 
er outfit by connecting to the current carrying part of 
the apparatus, and to the iron base or frame that should 
not carry current, If the lamps light, it indicates that 
the insulation is broken down or is defective. 

An A. C. voltmeter can, of course, be substituted for 
the lamps, or a D. C. voltmeter with D. C. current can 
be used in making the tests. 

A Short Circuit in the Primary. — This is caused by 
the insulation of the coils becoming defective and allow- 
ing the bare copper wires to touch each other. This may 
result in a "burn out" of one or more of the transformer 
coils, if the trouble is in the transformer, or in the con- 
tinued blowing of fuses in the line. Feel of each coil 



ELECTRIC WELDING 365 

separately. If a short circuit exists in a coil, it will heat 
excessively. Examine all the wires ; the insulation may 
have worn through and two of them may cross, or be in 
contact with the frame or other part of the welder. A 
short circuit in the regulator winding is indicated by fail- 
ure of the apparatus to regulate properly, and sometimes, 
though not always, by the heating of the regulator coils. 

The remedy for a short circuit is to reinsulate the de- 
fective parts. It is a good plan to prevent trouble by ex- 
amining the wiring occasionally and see that the insu- 
lation is perfect. 

To Locate Grounds and Short Circuits in the Second- 
ary, or Low Voltage Side. — Trouble of this kind is in- 
dicated by the machine acting sluggish or, perhaps, re- 
fusing to operate. To make a test, it will be necessary to 
first ascertain the exciting current of your particular 
transformer. This is the current the transformer draws 
on ' ' open circuit, ' ' or when supplied with current from 
the line with no stock in the welder dies. The following 
table will give this information close enough for all prac- 
tical purposes : 



K.W. 




Amperes 


at 




Rating 


110 Volts 


220 Volts 440 Volts 


550 Volts 


3 


1.5 


.75 


.38 


.3 


5 


2.5 


1.25 


.63 


.5 


8 


3.6 


1.8 


.9 


.72 


10 


4.25 


2.13 


1.07 


.85 


15 


6. 


3. 


1.5 


1.2 


20 


7. 


3.5 


1.75 


1.4 


30 


9. 


4.5 


2.25 


1.8 


35 


9.6 


4.8 


2.4 


1.92 


50 


10.- 


5. 


2.5 


2. 



Eemove the fuses from the wall switch and substitute 
fuses just large enough to carry the " exciting" current. 



366 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

If no suitable fuses are at hand, fine strands of copper 
from an ordinary lamp cord may be used. These strands 
are usually No. 30 gauge wire and will fuse at about 10 
amperes. One or more strands should be used, depend- 
ing on the amount of exciting current, and are connect- 
ed across the fuse clips in place of fuse wire. Place a 
piece of wood or fiber between the welding dies in the 
welder, as though you were going to weld them. See 
that the regulator is on the highest point and close the 
welder switch. If the secondary circuit is badly ground- 
ed, current will flow through the ground, and the small 
fuses or small strands of wire will burn out. This is an 
indication that both sides of the secondary circuit are 
grounded or that a short circuit exists in a primary coil. 
In either case the welder should not be operated until the 
trouble is found and removed. If, however, the small 
fuses do not "blow," remove same and replace the large 
fuses, then disconnect wires running from the wall 
switch to the welder and substitute two pieces of No. 8 
or No. 6 insulated copper wire, after scraping off the 
insulation for an inch or two at each end. Connect one 
wire from the switch to the frame of the welder; this 
will leave one loose end. Hold this a foot or so away from 
the place where the insulation is cut off ; then turn on the 
eurrent and strike the free end of this wire lightly 
against one of the copper dies, drawing it away quickly. 
If no sparking is produced, the secondary circuit is free 
from ground, and you will then look for a broken con- 
nection in the circuit. Some caution must be used in 
making the above test, as in case one terminal is heavily 
grounded the testing wire may be fused if allowed to 
stay in contact with the die. 

The Remedy. — Clean the slides, dies and terminal 
Mocks thoroughly and dry out the fiber insulation if it 
is damp. See that no scale or metal has worked under the 
sliding parts, and that the secondary leads do not touch 



ELECTRIC WELDING 367 

the frame. If the ground is very heavy, it may be neces- 
sary to remove the slides in order to facilitate the ex- 
amination and removal of the ground. Insulation, where 
torn or worn through, must be carefully replaced or 
taped. If the transformer coils are grounded to the iron 
core of the transformer or to the secondary, it may be 
necessary to remove the coils and reinsulate them at the 
points of contact. A short circuited coil will heat ex- 
cessively and eventually burn out. This may mean a 
new coil if you are unable to repair the old one. In all 
cases the transformer windings should be protected from 
mechanical injury or dampness. Unless excessively 
overloaded, transformers will last for years without giv- 
ing a moment's trouble, if they are not exposed to mois- 
ture or are not injured mechanically. 

The most common trouble arises from poor electrical 
contacts, and they are the cause of endless trouble and 
annoyance. See that all connections are clean and bright. 
Take out the dies every day or two and see that there is 
no scale, grease or dirt between them and the holders. 
Clean them thoroughly before replacing. Tighten the 
bolts running from the transformer leads to the work 
jaws. 

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING 

This method bears no relation to the one just con- 
sidered, except that the source of heat is the same in both 
cases. Arc welding makes use of the flame produced hy 
the voltaic arc, in practically the same way that oxy- 
acetylene welding uses the flame from the gases. 

If the ends of two pieces of carbon, through which a 
current of electricity is flowing while they are in con- 
tact, are separated from each other quite slowly, a bril- 
liant arc of flame is formed between them, which consists 
mainly of carbon vapor. The carbons are consumed by 



368 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

combination with the oxygen in the air and through be- 
ing turned to a gas under the intense heat. 

The most intense action takes place at the center of 
the carbon which carries the positive current, and this 
is the point of greatest heat. The temperature at this 
point in the arc is greater than can be produced by any 
other means under human control. 

The Flaming Arc. — An arc may be formed between 
pieces of metal, called electrodes, in the same way as be- 
tween carbons. The metallic arc is called a flaming arc, 
-and as the metal of the electrode burns with the heat, 
it gives the flame a color characteristic of the material 
t>eing used. The metallic arc may be drawn out to a 
much greater length than one formed between carbon 
electrodes. 

Operation. — Arc welding is carried out by drawing 
a piece of carbon which is of negative polarity away 
from the pieces of metal to be welded while the metal is 
made positive in polarity. The negative wire is fastened 
to the carbon electrode, and the work is laid on a table 
made of cast or wrought iron to which the positive wire 
is made fast. The direction of the flame is then from 
the metal being welded to the carbon, and the work is 
thus prevented from being saturated with carbon, which 
would prove very detrimental to its strength. A second- 
ary advantage is found in the fact that the greatest heat 
is at the metal being welded, because of its being the pos- 
itive electrode. 

The carbon electrode is usually made from one quarter 
to one and a half inches in diameter and from six to 
twelve inches in length. The length of the arc may be 
anywhere from one inch to four inches, depending on 
the size of the work being handled. 

Precautions. — While the parts are carefully insulated 
to avoid danger of shock, it is necessary for the operator 
to wear rubber gloves as a further protection, and to 



ELECTRIC WELDING 369 

wear some form of hood over the head to shield him 
against the extreme heat liberated. This hood may be 
made from metal, although some material that does not 
conduct electricity is to be preferred. The work is 
watched through a piece of glass formed with one sheet, 
which is either blue or green, placed over another which 
is red. Screens of glass are sometimes used without 
the head protector. Some protection for the eyes is ab- 
solutely necessary because of the intense white light. 

It is seldom necessary to preheat the work, as with the 
gas processes, because the heat is localized at the point 
of welding and the action is so rapid that the expansion 
is not so great. The necessity of preheating, however, 
depends entirely on the material, form and size of the 
work being handled. 'Hie same advice applies to arc 
welding as to the gas flame method, but in a lesser de- 
gree. Filling rods are used in the same way as with any 
other flame process. 

PRINCIPLES OF ARC WELDING 

It is the purpose of this explanation to state the funda- 
mental principles of the application of the electric arc to 
welding metals, and by applying the principles the fol- 
lowing questions will be answered : 

What metals can be welded by the electric arc ? 

What difficulties are to be encountered in applying 
the electric arc to welding? 

What is the strength of the weld in comparison with 
the original piece ? 

What is the comparative application of the electric 
arc and the oxy-acetylene method and others of a similar 
nature? 

What is the function of the arc welding machine itself ? 

The answers to these questions will make it possible 
to understand the application of this process to any work. 
In a great many places the use of the arc is cutting the 



370 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

cost of welding to a very small fraction of what it would 
be by any other method, so that the importance of this 
method may be well understood. 

Metals That Can Be Welded. — Any two metals which 
are brought to the melting temperatures and applied to 
each other will adhere so that they are no more apt to 
break at the weld than at any other point outside of 
the weld. It is the property of all metals to stick to- 
gether under these conditions. The electric arc is used 
in this connection merely as a heating agent. This is 
its only function in the process. 

It has advantages in its ease of application and the 
cheapness with which heat can be liberated at any given 
point by its use. There is nothing in connection with 
arc welding that the above principles will not answer ; 
that is, that metals at the melting point will weld and 
that the electric arc will furnish, the heat to bring them 
to this point. As to the first question, then, what metals 
can be welded ? The answer is, all metals can be welded. 

Difficulties. — The difficulties which are encountered 
are as follows : 

1. In case of brass or zinc, the metals will be covered 
with a coat of zinc oxide before they reach a welding heat. 
This zinc oxide makes it impossible for two clean surfaces 
to come together, and some method has to be used for 
eliminating this possibility and allowing the two surfaces 
to join without the possibility of the oxide intervening. 
The same is true of aluminum, in which the oxide, alum- 
ina, will be formed, and several other alloys compris- 
ing elements of different melting points. 

In order to eliminate these oxides, it is necessary in 
practical work to puddle the weld; that is, to have a 
sufficient quantity of molten metal at the weld, so that 
the oxide is floated away. "When this is done, the two 
surfaces which are to be joined are covered with a coat of 
melted metal on which float the oxide and other impuri- 



ELECTRIC WELDING 371 

ties. The two pieces are thus allowed to join while their 
surfaces are protected. This precaution is not necessary 
in working with steel, except in extreme cases. 

2. Another difficulty which is met with in the weld- 
ing of a great many metals is their expansion under heat, 
which results in so great a contraction when the weld 
cools that the metal is left with a considerable strain on 
it. In extreme cases this will result in cracking at the 
weld or near it. To eliminate this danger it is necessary 
to apply heat, either all over the piece to be welded or 
at certain points. In the case of cast iron, and some- 
times with copper, it is necessary to anneal after weld- 
ing, since otherwise the welded pieces will be very brittle 
on account of the chilling. This is also true of malleable 
iron. 

3. Very thin metals which are welded together and 
are not backed up by something to carry away the ex- 
cess heat, are very apt to burn through, leaving a hole 
where the weld should be. This difficulty can be 
eliminated by backing up the weld with a metal face, or 
by decreasing the intensity of the arc, so that this melt- 
ing through will not occur. However, the practical 
limit for arc welding without backing up the work 
with a metal face or decreasing the intensity of the 
arc, is approximately No. 22 gauge, although thinner 
metal can be welded by a very skillful and careful opera- 
tor. 

4. A common difficulty with arc welding is the lack of 
skillful operators. This method is often looked upon as 
being something out of the ordinary and governed by 
laws entirely different from other welding. As a matter 
of fact, it does not take as much skill to make a good arc 
weld as it does to make a good weld in a forge fire, as the 
blacksmith does it. There are few jobs which cannot be 
handled successfully by an operator of average intelli- 
gence with one week's instruction, although his work will 



372 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

become better and better in quality as he continues to use 
the arc. 

Strength of the Weld. — Now comes the question of the 
strength of the weld after it has been made. This 
strength is equally as great as that of the metal that is 
used to make the weld. It should be remembered, how- 
ever, that the metal which goes into the weld is put there 
as a casting and has not been rolled. This would make 
the strength of the weld as great as the same metal that 
is used for filling if in the cast form. 

Two pieces of steel could be welded together, having 
a tensile strength at the weld of 50,000 pounds. Higher 
strengths than this can be obtained by the use of special 
alloys for the filling material, or by rolling. Welds with 
a tensile strength as great as mentioned will give a result 
which is perfectly satisfactory in almost all cases. 

There are a great many jobs where it is possible to 
fill up the weld, that is, make the section at the point 
of the weld a little larger than the section through the 
rest of the piece. By doing this, the disadvantages of the 
weld being in the form of a casting in comparison with 
the rest of the piece being in the form of rolled steel can 
be overcome, and make the weld itself even stronger 
than the original piece. 

Comparative Application. — Another question is the 
adaptability of the electric arc in comparison with forge 
fire, oxy-acetylene, or any other method. The answer 
is somewhat difficult if made general. There are no 
doubt some cases where the use of a drop hammer and 
forge fire, or the use of the oxy-acetylene torch, will make, 
all things being considered, a better job than the use of 
the electric arc, although a case where this is absolutely 
proved is rare. 

The electric arc will melt metal in a w^eld for less than 
the same metal can be melted by the use of the oxy-acety- 
lene torch ; and, on account of the fact that the heat can 



ELECTRIC WELDING 373 

be applied exactly where it is required and in the amount 
required, the arc can in almost all cases supply welding 
heat for less cost than a forge fire or heating furnace. 

The one great advantage of the oxy-acetylene method 
in comparison with other methods of welding is the fact 
that in some cases of very thin sheet, the weld can be 
made somewhat sooner than is possible otherwise. "With 
metal of No. 18 gauge or thicker, this advantage is elimi- 
nated. In cutting steel, the oxy-acetylene torch is supe- 
rior to almost any other possible method. 

Arc Welding Machines. — A consideration of the func- 
tion and purpose of the various types of arc welding ma- 
chines shows that the only reason for the use of any 
machine is either for conversion of the current from 
alternating to direct, or, if the current is already direct, 
then the saving in the application of this current in the 
arc. 

It is practically out of the question to apply an alter- 
nating current arc to welding, for the reason that in any 
arc practically all the heat is liberated at the positive 
electrode, which means that, in alternating current, half 
the heat is liberated at each electrode as the current 
changes its direction of flow or alternates. Another dis- 
advantage of the alternating arc is that it is difficult of 
control and application. 

In all arc welding by the use of the carbon arc, the 
positive electrode is made the piece to be welded, while 
in welding with metallic electrodes this may be either 
the piece to be welded or the rod that is used as a filler. 
The voltage across the arc is a variable quantity, de- 
pending on the length of the flame, its temperature, and 
the gases liberated in the arc. "With a carbon electrode 
the voltage will vary from zero to forty-five volts. With 
the metallic electrode the voltage will vary from zero to 
thirty volts. It is, therefore, necessary for the welding 
machine to be able to furnish to the arc the requisite 



374 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

amount of current, this amount being varied, and fur- 
nish it at all times at the voltage required. 

The simplest welding apparatus is a resistance in series 
with the arc. This is entirely satisfactory in every way 
except in cost of current. By the use of resistance in 
series with the arc and using 220 volts as the supply, 
from eighty to ninety per cent of the current is lost in 
heat at the resistance. Another disadvantage is the fact 
that most materials change their resistance as their tem- 
perature changes, thus making the amount of current for 
the arc a variable quantity, depending on the temperature 
of the resistance. 

There have been various methods originated for saving 
the power mentioned and a good many machines have 
been put on the market for this purpose. All of them 
save some power over what a plain resistance would use. 
Practically all arc welding machines at the present time 
are motor generator sets, the motor of which is arranged 
for the supply voltage and current, this motor being 
direct connected to a compound wound generator deliver- 
ing approximately seventy-five volts direct current. Then 
by the use of a resistance, this seventy-five volt supply is 
applied to the arc. Since the voltage across the arc will 
vary from zero to fifty volts, this machine will save from 
zero up to seventy per cent of the power that the machine 
delivers. The rest of the power, of course, has to be dissi- 
pated in the resistance used in series with the arc. 

A motor generator set, which can be purchased from 
any electrical company, with a long piece of fence wire 
wound around a piece of asbestos, gives results equally 
good and at a very small part of the first cost. 

It is possible to construct a machine which will elimi- 
nate all losses in the resistance ; in other words, eliminate 
all resistance in series with the arc. A machine of this 
kind will save its cost within a very short time, providing 
the welder is used to any extent. 



ELECTRIC WELDING 375 

Putting it in figures, the results are as follows for 
average conditions: Current at 2c per kilowatt hour, 
metallic electrode arc of 150 amperes, carbon arc 500 
amperes; voltage across the metallic electrode arc, 20; 
voltage across the carbon arc, 35. Supply current 220 
volts, "direct. In the case of the metallic electrode, if re- 
sistance is used, the cost of running this arc is sixty-six 
cents per hour. With the carbon electrode, $2.20 per 
hour. 

If a motor generator set with a seventy-volt constant 
potential machine is used for a welder, the cost will be as 
follows: Metallic electrode, 25.2c; carbon electrode, 84c 
per hour. 

"With a machine which will deliver the required voltage 
at the arc and eliminate all the resistance in series with 
the arc, the cost will be as follows : Metallic electrode, 7.2c 
per hour ; carbon electrode, 42c per hour. 

This is with the understanding that the arc is held 
constant and continuously at its full value. This, how- 
ever, is practically impossible and the actual load factor 
is approximately fifty per cent, which would mean that 
operating a welder as it is usually operated, the result 
will be reduced to one-half of that stated in all cases. 



IX 

HAND FOKGING AND WELDING 

The course given here on Hand Forging and Welding 
is not presented with the idea of making a toolsmith or 
blacksmith of the sheet metal worker, but is intended 
to show another method of joining steel and iron. 

It has been shown elsewhere in this book how metal can 
be joined by soldering, brazing, and electric and oxy- 
acetylene welding processes. Another method, hand weld- 
ing, is introduced in this chapter. Structural steel is 
greatly utilized for reinforcing sheet iron, and the sheet 
metal contractor who is called upon to read plans and 
make estimates in building construction and other work 
must have some knowledge of these different processes, 
as they enter into specifications laid before the contractor 
and his workers to solve. 

A good soldering job would not recommend the oxy- 
acetylene welding process; a good hand-welding job 
would not suggest electric spot welding, and while our 
reader might not be afforded an opportunity to prac- 
tice these different methods, he can learn about them 
from the information in these pages. 

The exercises given show how steel, when heated over 
the forge and placed on the anvil, can be transformed 
into many shapes of usefulness. They bring into use 
the tools and other equipment used in hand forging and 
welding practice. As the student progresses in his studies 
and later finds a place in the industrial shop, he will 
better understand how intimately hand forging and weld- 
ing are connected with sheet metal working, making a 
knowledge of these methods necessary in the modern shop. 

376 . 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



377 



FORGE-SHOP TOOLS 



Anvils and Blocks. — Anvils suitable for light work are 
manufactured of semi-steel in sizes varying from 50 to 
150 lbs., also cast-iron anvil blocks suitable for the various 
sizes of anvils. These semi-steel anvils are considerably 




Figure 290. — Regular Steel Anvil. 

cheaper than regular steel anvils, but usually answer the 
purpose of the training school and small shop. 




Figure 291. — Swage Block. 

Swage Blocks. — These are made in various sizes of 
cast iron and in almost any shape desired, round, square, 
or hexagonal. Where a variety of work is done, a swage 
block (Figure 291) is almost indispensable as an adjunct 
to the anvil, often saving the purchase of special tools. 

Combination Vise. — A very handy tool in the school 
or shop is the combination vise, which includes in one 



378 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



machine an anvil, anvil-vise, pipe-vise, and drill press. 
The face of the anvil is 3x8", while the pipe jaws are re- 
movable and will grip pipe from y 8 " to 3" in diameter. 




Figure 292. — Combination Vise. 

Grindstone. — The grindstone in the modern shop is 
motor-driven and fitted with a tool rest and water tank. 

Induced-Draft Forge.— A good type of forge, with 
hand instead of power blast, has a convenient geared 



■£fcs» 




Figure 292A.— Induced-Draft Forge, Equipped with Silent Blower. 

hand blower, with overhead down-draft exhaust hood 
which recirculates a portion of the gases that arise, 
thereby increasing the temperature of the blast and the 
natural draft on the forge. This is called an induced- 
draft forge. (Figure 292 A.) 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



379 



Lever Drill. — A convenient machine for the forge shop 
has a compound lever feed with which a one-inch hole 




Figure 293. — Lever Drill. 



can be readily drilled. It may be driven by a y 2 H. P. 
motor. 

Punch and Shear.- — This is a machine -tool, now made 
of armor plate steel and stronger than the old cast iron 
type which weighed four times as much. It is usually 
furnished with three punches, of varying sizes up to y 2 - 
inch, and is used for punching holes in plate metal, also 
for cutting metal rods and bars. 




Figure 295. — Power Hammer. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



381 



Tower Hammer. — This useful machine is designed for 
continuous service and can be operated at a very high 
rate of speed. Every working part is of steel. The 
ram of a typical machine is connected with spring arms, 





B> 0==3j 



Figure 296. — Anvil Tools : A, Square Flatter ; B, Set Hammer ; O s 
Round Punch ; D, Cold Chisel ; E, Hot Chisel .• 

through which it gives a very elastic, cushioned, and 
powerful blow. It is started, stopped, and regulated by a 
foot treadle, through varying pressure on which any 
desired speed or force of blow is obtained. 




Figure 297. — Anvil Tools : A, Hand Hammer ; B, C, Top and Bottom 
Swages ; D, E, Top and Bottom Fullers ; F 3 Sledge ; G 3 Hardie. 



Square Flatter. — This is a blacksmith's anvil tool used 
for smoothing and finishing flat forgings. Round flat- 
ters are also used on work where the corner of a square 
flatter would be in the way. 



382 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Set Hammers. — These are used for setting down the 
metal in a forging to form a' square corner at a point 
where the section changes. 

Swages. — Swages are used for shaping, sizing, and 
smoothing round forgings. Top and bottom swages are 
used. 

Fullers. — These are used for necking and grooving 
forgings, and also for drawing down a forging to a 
smaller section. 




Figure 298. — Blacksmith's Tongs : i, Straight Lip, to Hold Squares ; 
B y Straight Lip, for Holding Thin Flat Work ; C, Bolt Tongs, for 
Round Work ; D 3 Tongs for General Forging Purposes ; E 3 for Holding 
Bar Stock When Forging Lathe Tools. 

Sledge. — The sledge is the familiar blacksmith's large 
heavy hammer. A weight commonly used is 8 lbs. 

Hardies. — These are tools which are set in the anvil 
and used for cutting off forgings. 

Tongs. — Many forms of tongs are used in forging, in- 
cluding shapes for holding thin flat work, squares, bolts 
or other round work, bar stock, etc. The tongs used for 
general forging purposes are usually 18 inches long, with 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 383 

a flat jaw, but the smith often shapes his tongs himself 
to suit his individual needs. 

Other tools used at the forge include the hand hammer, 
cold chisel, hot chisel, and round punch, with the uses 
of which every student is familiar. 

NOTES ON IRON 

Iron is the most important of the metallic elements, 
silvery white in color when pure, very tenacious, malle- 
able and ductile. It was first produced in America in 
1622 near the James River, Virginia. It is used in the 
industrial arts in four forms — cast iron, malleable iron, 
wrought iron, and steel, each form having its own marked 
physical properties, fitting it for a special purpose. 

Cast Iron. — Cast iron is an alloy. It is often called pig 
iron because of the fact that it is molded in little bars or 
pigs as it runs from the furnace. The process of making 
this iron is that of smelting, or melting the ore in a 
blast furnace in connection with various fluxes, particu- 
larly limestone. These furnaces are from 50 to 60 feet 
high and are called " blast" furnaces because the blast 
is forced into them. This species of iron is extremely 
brittle and melts at a relatively low temperature; is 
crystalline in construction, and can only be used for 
such articles as may be made or cast in molds. It contains 
a large percentage of carbon and usually silicon, phos- 
phorus and sulphur. The amount of carbon varies from 
1.5 per cent to 4.5 per cent. 

Malleable Iron. — Malleable iron is cast iron which has 
been toughened during the process of baking in an oven 
for six or eight days. This decarbonizes the east iron. 

Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron is the extreme of the 
series. It is an alloy of iron and comes the nearest to 
being pure, having an extremely small percentage of 
carbon, practically none. It is very malleable, fusing at 
a very high temperature; becomes pasty during a con- 



384 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

siderable range of heat; will keep in a malleable condi- 
tion above a red heat, which is much below the fusing 
point, and thus can be bent and formed into different 
shapes with the hammer. Iron work produced in this 
way is called wrought iron. Wrought iron manipulated 
when hot is said to be forged. Two pieces brought to a 
fusing point may be united into one piece by hammering. 
Pieces so united are said to be welded. It will not be- 
come hard and brittle like cast iron, as it is of a fibrous 
construction • it shows a high tensile strength at a frac- 
ture. This iron is divided into two classes — common or 
refined iron and Norway iron. Wrought iron has been 
largely displaced for most purposes by the increased 
production of steel. The iron used in making the exer- 
cises in this course should be Norway iron, as better re- 
sults are attained than by using common iron. 

Puddling. — The general process of making wrought 
iron at the present day is known as "puddling." This 
process was invented about the year 1780 by Henry 
Cort, and improved about fifty years later by Joseph 
Hall. The method employed is one of melting cast iron 
in a chamber or on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, 
the flame passing over the molten metal. The requisite 
time for this operation is about thirty minutes. When 
the metal becomes melted, an oxidizing metal is added. 
All phosphorus, sulphur, carbon, and other impurities 
may be eliminated by stirring. During the melting a slag 
forms and adjusts itself to the iron around each fiber, 
showing a fibrous rather than a crystalline structure. 
There are many varieties of furnaces of various capaci- 
ties; the capacity of the most common size ordinarily 
being from 500 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. 

THE ART OF HAND WELDING 

Some metals, when heated, become gradually softer 
as the temperature increases, until a heat is attained at 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



385- 



which the metal is in such a condition that if two separate 
pieces are brought into contact by slight pressure, they 
will adhere and form a single piece. Every metal is not 




Figure 299. — Stationary Down-Draft Single Forge : 1 9 Adjustable 
Hood ; 2, Stationary Hood ; 3, Front Plate ; Jf, Hearth ; 5, Fire Brick ; 
6, Fire Pot ; 7, Water Tank ; 8, Tool Rack ; 9, Adjusting Lever ; 10' s . 
Segment ; 11, Pinion ; 12, Base ; 13, Exhaust Pipe ; IJf, Tuyere Lever ; 
15, Blast Gate Lever ; 16, Coal Box. 



affected in this manner. Cast iron, for instance, does not 
become gradually softer as the heat is increased, but 
remains firm until a certain temperature is reached 
and then softens suddenly and goes to- pieces. Any metal 
which softens gradually when heated, may be welded, 



S8G SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

while metals which act as cast iron does, can not be 
welded. 

Welding Heat. — The condition at which pieces of metal 
are ready to adhere, is known as the welding heat. The 
two pieces of metal properly shaped are brought to this 
welding heat, placed together and thoroughly hammered, 
or forged together by pressure in such a way as to bring 
the two pieces into contact at all parts of the weld. The 
weight of the blow must be governed by the size of the 
bar, as the blow must be sufficient to affect the metal 
from the surface to the center. With this precaution a 
good weld may be produced. It is necessary to make some 
of the most difficult welds at one heat, as it is often im- 
possible to reheat. In all welding, the greatest care must 
be observed to heat the piece properly. A piece of 
wrought iron, when brought to a welding heat, is almost 
white, and little explosive sparks appear upon the sur- 
face. These little sparks are small particles of iron which 
become separated from the bar and burn. 

Fire for Welding. — It is very essential to have and 
maintain a good fire on the forge during the process of 
welding. Good coal and material are among the essen- 
tials. The good fire is indispensable in order to attain 
the best results in welding. The tuyere iron, or blast 
pipe, must be well covered with coke and the fire must 
be absolutely free from all clinkers and well banked with 
green coal, burning up quickly to allow all gas to escape. 
Keep plenty of coke on top of the iron. Do not continu- 
ally poke the fire. 

Oxidation of Iron. — If a piece of iron is heated in con- 
tact with air, it will absorb oxygen from the air and form 
a scale upon the surface, which is known as oxide of iron. 
The hotter the iron, the more rapidly this scale will form. 
The scale does not adhere firmly to the iron and cannot be 
welded. Two methods are used to guard against oxida- 
tion. In the first, it is accomplished by having a thick 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 387 

bed of fire for the air to pass through before coming in 
contact with the iron and by maintaining a moderate 
blast. The second method is by coating the surface* of 
the iron with a substance called flux, which lowers the 
melting point of the scale and makes welding easier. This 
flux is formed by a fusible mixture which offers pro- 
tection to the iron. The most common flux for iron is 
clean, sharp sand and borax; the latter is used for fine 
work and steel. 

To weld steel is quite a different proposition, for the 
welding temperature of steel is, on account of its greater 
fusibility, considerably less than that of iron. There are 
so many different kinds of steel that the same rule will 
not apply to all of them. Cast tool steel is the most diffi- 
cult to weld. 

The Scarf or Lap Weld. — This weld is the one usually 
adopted by smiths, and is the best when it is practicable. 
For most welding, the ends of the pieces must be so 
shaped that when welded together, they will form a 
smooth joint. This shaping of the ends is called " scarf- 
ing' ' and the shaped end is called a " scarf." 

The scarfs should be so shaped that when placed to- 
gether they will touch in the center, leaving the sides 
open. In this way the scale is forced out between the 
pieces. If the pieces should join on the sides and leave 
the center hollow the scale would be imprisoned, making 
a bad weld. Prior to making a scarf weld, the metal 
should be reinforced or upset, as far back as it is to be 
exposed to the intense heat. This upset allows for wast- 
ing away. 

In case of failure to make a perfect weld at the first 
heat, then a second heat should be taken. No sign of 
the scarf should be seen on a perfect weld. 

For ordinary lap weld the length of the scarf may be 
made one and one-half times the thickness of the bar. 
If the scarfs are long, the laps must be long. In welding 



388 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

a round bar, the scarf is made the same as the lap weld, 
except that the scarf should be drawn to a sharp point 
instead of to a chisel edge. This is done in order that 
the corners may not project beyond the edge of the bar 
when welding, thus causing considerable trouble. 

Place the pieces in the fire with the scarf down, as the 
under side of the iron is always the hottest. Do not heat 
the iron too quickly, as it will come to a welding heat on 
the outside and yet not be thoroughly heated, so that 
when exposed to the air it will cool too rapidly. 

When each piece has attained a clean, white heat, re- 
move them, giving each a jar upon the anvil while the 
scarf is down, thus dislodging any dirt which may have 
adhered. Turn the one in the right hand over and place 
the other on top of it, bringing them together as quickly 
as possible. In putting the two pieces together, the point 
of one scarf should just meet the heel of the other. Ham- 
mer rapidly, in order that they may become united before 
the heat gets below the welding point. The cold anvil 
very quickly reduces the heat. 

STEEL AND ITS MANUFACTURE 

Steel is the name applied to carbonized iron, having 
a high tensile strength combined with elasticity. It was 
first made by the ancient Egyptians and other early races, 
by reducing very pure iron ore mixed with chopped wood, 
in clay crucibles, which were heated in charcoal fires 
blown by goatskin bellows. From this steel, the cele- 
brated Indian sword blades were fashioned. No finer tool 
steel has ever been made. 

The term "steel" as used in early times, designated 
a form of carbonized iron which would harden or "tem- 
per ' ' when dipped in cold water, after having been heated 
to a red heat. This definition no longer holds good, as the 
carbonized iron produced by modern methods and used 
extensively in structural work, goes by the name of steel. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



38& 



Up to the time of the invention of the open hearth process, 
the only commercial process of making steel was by de- 
carbonizing cast iron, and then recarbonizing the result- 
ing wrought iron in the cementation furnace. 

Steel may now be defined as a metal produced by a 
complete fusion of iron or iron alloys, in a bath, the 



-s^-tf- 



INSTRUCTOR'S FORCE 



<s> 



□ an 



1 ))\ ##'/? *# *y# o/' * 

rY^"'^"^^ — ^""t — ^t'-r — z f-- '^"--ii 





Figure 300. — Layout of Shop with Double Down-Draft Forges. 



necessary properties being given after conversion by the 
addition of carbon or carbon alloys. Many theories have 
been advanced as to what steel really is. One held by 
many metallurgists is that i l steel is an alloy of pure iron 
and carbon only," all other elements being regarded as. 
impurities. Good steel is of a bluish, gray color, uniform 
in grain and having little luster. 

There are three distinct methods used in making steel, 



390 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the open hearth, the Bessemer, and the crucible. The 
latter is the oldest of the present methods of manufac- 
ture, having been in use for centuries. The first two 
methods are probably the ones most commonly used at 
the present time. In these, the carbon in the cast iron 
is burned out, while in the last method, the carbon is 
burned into the wrought iron. Other methods formerly 



& & <? & ..."-<?* <? <? €? <S? 



^ 



HAMMER SMEAR 



-e- 



& 



ii^iiiiiifi 




^^F^RF^ 1 ^ 





Figure 300A. — Layout of Shop with Induced-Draft Forges. 



produced cement or blister steel and shear steel. In 
commercial importance, the processes rank, open hearth, 
Bessemer, and crucible. It was not until the open hearth 
and Bessemer processes came into use that steel began 
to supplant wrought iron to any extent. 

Open Hearth Steel. — This method of making steel was 
discovered about the year 1845. It is under better con- 
trol than the Bessemer process, since at any time it affords 
opportunity for testing and for making such additions 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 391 

as may be necessary to yield the desired product. The 
open hearth furnace also permits of the highest tempera- 
ture without requiring a strong draft. These furnaces 
are built to hold from ten to fifty tons of metal. The 
time for an operation or ' ' heat ' ' is from eight to eleven 
hours. Steel rails, structural materials, plates, etc., are 
produced by this process. 

Bessemer Steel. — The Bessemer process is named after 
its inventor, Sir Henry Bessemer, an Englishman, and 
was introduced in 1856. For many years after its intro- 
duction it ranked first among all the processes. Bessemer 
steel is made by decarbonizing cast iron by forcing a cur- 
rent of air through the molten metal in a pear-shaped 
crucible or vessel, called a " converter. " There has been 
little change in the design of the converter from that 
originally used. A common size of this converter has 
the following dimensions : Diameter 8 ft., height 15 ft. 
It is made of boiler plate, lined with refractory material. 
It is suspended upon an axis to admit of its being turned 
from an upright to a horizontal position. In the bottom 
there are twelve tuyeres, or blast pipes, which have to be 
replaced after about twelve to fifteen blows or heats. 

The usual capacity of the converter is from six to fif- 
teen tons of cast iron. The blast of air forced through 
the molten cast iron produces great heat. The resulting* 
gas and flame escapes from the mouth of the converter 
the combustion of carbon and silicon producing a tem- 
perature sufficient to keep the mass thoroughly melted, 
thus quickly burning out the carbon and silicon, this last 
result being indicated by the color of the flame. The 
molten metal is poured into a ladle and then there is 
added to it manganiferous pig iron, which reintroduces: 
the necessary amount of carbon and manganese. This 
entire process takes about twenty minutes. It is then 
cast into ingots, and, after being treated in the re- 
heating furnace or "soaking-pit," is rolled to the re- 



392 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

quired thickness. Bessemer steel is used for nails, screws, 
wire, and in fact for all products where cheapness rather 
than quality is the requirement. 

Crucible Steel. — Crucible or tool steel, the oldest and 
simplest process, takes its name from the methods em- 
ployed in its manufacture. In this process, carbon is 
added to a low phosphorus and sulphur wrought iron. 
Swedish or Norway iron is used in preference to other 
kinds, as it has proved superior in making high-grade 
tool steel. This iron is cut into small pieces one inch long 
from flat iron bars, 2 // a 1 / 2 // . These pieces are then placed 
in a clay crucible (sometimes a graphite crucible is used, 
although it is not as good) which is about 20" high and 
1 foot in diameter. A certain amount of powdered char- 
coal is mixed with these pieces, and the crucible is then 
tightly sealed and subjected to great heat, which melts 
the iron. After having remained in a molten state for 
some time, it is poured into molds and forms ingots, 
which are afterward rolled or hammered under a steam 
hammer into bars. This process has undergone but little 
change in all the years it has been employed, the only 
important change being a more direct method for intro- 
ducing the carbon into the steel. In the main, however, 
the method now used is the same as that used centuries 
ago. Owing to the high cost of production, this method 
is now used principally for making high-grade tool steel. 
The elasticity of this steel makes it of use in many places 
where no other steel could be safely used. 

Tempering. — The term "temper," as used by steel 
makers, refers to the percentage of carbon in the steel. 
It has a different meaning when used by the steel maker 
than when used by the hardener. In the steel mill, it 
means the amount of carbon the steel contains. The 
meanings have been tabulated by an authority as follows : 

Very high temper 150-point carbon 

High temper 100 to 120-point carbon 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 393 

Medium temper 70 to 80-point carbon 

Mild temper 40 to 60-point carbon 

Low temper 20 to 30-point carbon 

Soft or dead soft temper 20-point carbon 

A ' ' point ' ' is 1/100 of 1 per cent of any element that 
enters into the composition of steel, so a 150-point carbon 
steel contains iy 2 per cent carbon. In the steel mill such 
a steel is spoken of as 150 steel. 

" Tempering/ ' on the other hand, also denotes the 
process by which steel is brought to a previously deter- 
mined degree of hardness. A steel chisel can be made so 
hard that it will cut another piece of steel ; or so soft that 
driving it into a piece of hard wood will dull its point. 
This property of steel enables the mechanic to make it 
into tools suitable for any kind of work. 

Steel is tempered by various means, all of which 
depend upon a heating and subsequent cooling of the 
metal. For instance, a piece of tool steel which is heated 
to a cherry red heat and then plunged into cold water, 
becomes very hard. If allowed to cool slowly, it becomes 
soft. Between these extremes all degrees of hardness can 
be obtained. Every tool is tempered to the hardness that 
makes it most useful. 

When a polished piece of steel, hardened or unhard- 
ened, is exposed to heat in the presence of air, it assumes 
different colors as the heat increases. First will be noted 
a faint straw color, which changes to a deeper straw, 
then to a dark brown with purple spots, then to a dark 
blue, and finally to a light blue. These colors are due to 
a thin film of oxide that forms as the heat progresses. 
These colors are valueless, however, to the toolmaker un- 
less the metal has first been cooled in a bath of water, 
oil, or some other liquid, when at a red heat. Drawing 
hardened steel to any of these colors is called "temper- 
ing." The following list of colors applies to all of the 
tools commonly made : 



394 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Color. Tool. 

Pale or light straw 'Lathe tools 

Dark straw Taps, dies, milling cutters, etc. 

Woodworking tools (cooled in oil) 

Purple . Center punch, stone drills 

Dark blue Cold or cape chisels 

Light blue Screwdrivers 

Tool Tempering. — Let us now consider the tempering 
of a tool, taking for example the cold chisel, a tool 
widely known and generally abused. To obtain a good 
chisel, it must be properly forged at a comparatively low 
heat, and then hammered with light blows at the last until 
it has cooled considerably below the heat ordinarily used 
when metal is displaced. The object of the light blow on 
the cooling metal, is to close the grain or refine the steel, 
making it tough. Tools of this character stand up better 
if they are heated to a cherry red heat and allowed to cool 
before hardening. This is not always possible, but when 
it is, make the hardening heat a separate operation. 

To harden, heat two-thirds of the part forged to a 
cherry red heat, using great care not to overheat the 
point, and then cool one-half of the blade in cold water ; 
always move the tool about or set the water in motion, 
avoiding any danger of making a water crack at the water 
edge. 

The next operation is to brighten one broad surface 
with an emery stick. A piece of emery cloth tacked over 
a stick of wood makes a very good polisher. The heat 
remaining in the body of the chisel will reheat the end al- 
ready cooled, and the various colors will appear in order 
on the polished surface. The proper color for a cold 
chisel when correctly tempered, is dark blue. When this 
color is attained at the point the entire tool is then im- 
mersed in water and is not removed until cold. If the 
tool is not cooled off enough in the first operation, the 
colors will run down very rapidly and become compact, 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 395 

and if not watched closely, they will be gone before the 
tool can be cooled. 

When a tool is to be hardened all over, it is first heated 
to a cherry red heat and then cooled. After brighten- 
ing with the emery stick, place on a square or flat piece 
of hot iron. The tool will absorb the heat and the colors 
will soon commence to run. "When the desired color is 
attained, cool again in water or oil. In a commercial 
plant where a great many tools of the same kind are made, 
and where the composition of the steel is known, a hard- 
ening bath is used. 

Spring Tempering. — The method employed in harden- 
ing a spring in oil is as follows : First, heat to a cherry 
red heat, as in hardening in water ; cool all over in oil ; 
hold over the fire until the oil upon the surface blazes. 
This is called ' ' flashing. ' ' Cool again in oil. This ' ' flash- 
ing" is done three times before the process is complete. 
Another method of hardening a spring employs a water 
bath instead of the oil. Pass the spring over the fire or 
through a flame until it is hot enough to make a pine 
stick show sparks ; then cool in water and a spring ' ' tem- 
per" results. 

Annealing. — The process of softening a piece of steel 
is called "annealing." A piece of steel is softened or 
"annealed" prior to being worked upon in the lathe or 
otherwise machined, as this process brings about a uni- 
form softening, relieving any strain that might have 
occurred in forging. To anneal a piece of steel it should 
first be heated to a cherry red heat, and then allowed to 
cool slowly. When long pieces of steel, or a number of 
pieces, are to be annealed, and a furnace is employed, 
the pieces are placed in a long tube or pipe, and both ends 
sealed. They are then brought to a cherry red heat and 
allowed to cool. When a piece is heated in the forge, 
it is covered over in the annealing box. Dry slack lime 
or ashes can be used for this purpose, to keep out air. 



COURSE IN FORGE PRACTICE 



Care of Forge. — Operation of forge as to use of firepot, 
tuyeres, draft and blast. 

Building and- maintaining fires for different classes of 
work. Production of coke for the fire. Removal of ashes 
and clinkers. 



Elements. 

Drawing. 

Bending. 

Shouldering. 

Twisting. 

Upsetting. 

Forming. 

Punching. 

Chamfering. 

Use of finishing 
tools such as 
swages, fullers, 
hardies. 



Scarfing. 
Proper heat. 



Suggested Problems. 
Forge and Anvil. 

Gaggers, staples, S hook, square angle 
irons. 

Form ring for subsequent welding. 
Tapering round irons for drafting 
holes in patterns. 

Burning irons for fitting chisel han- 
dles. Pointing pokers, tapping irons. 
Eyelet drawing pins for lifting pat- 
terns. 

Pipe hooks, bolts of stock sizes. 

Hook for whippletree. 

Upsetting stock for subsequent tool 
holder. 

Open square jawed wrench. 

Draw plates for bolts. 

Brackets for tool racks. 

Flat alligator wrench. 

Welding. 
Rings and links for whippletree. 

396 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



397 



Elements. 


Suggested Problems. 


Fluxes. Stock scrap used to form bar iron. 


Lap weld. 




Faggot weld. Flat angle irons, gaggers. 


Tee weld. 




Angle weld. 






Tool Steel 


Annealing heat. 


Flat cold chisel. 


Forging heat. 


Cape chisel. 


Hardening heat. 


Center punches. 


Case hardening. 


Diamond point chisel. 


Temper for cutting 




wood. 


Wood turning chisel. 


Temper for cutting . 




iron. 


Side cutting chisel. 


High speed steel 




work. 


Round nose chisel. 




Vise Work. 


Numbering and lettering work with 


steel stamps. 


Angle irons. 


Laying out and center punching for 


drilling on press. 


Bolts. 


Reaming. 


Draw pins. 


Cutting threads on bolts and draw- 


pins with die. 


Draw plates. 


Tapping draw plate. 


Anchor plates. 


Riveting. 


Tool holder. 


Drill Press, 


, Shear and Grinder. 


Getting out stock for standard jobs. Iron plates of va- 




rious kinds. 


Drilling and countersinking. Machine tool hold- 


Grinding and finishing. 


Lathe tools. 



Upsetting. 



398 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Elements. Suggested Problems. 

Steam Hammer. 
Drawing. C-clamp. 

Crucible handles. 
Tongs, lever arm. 
Mast ring. 
Large open 
wrenches. 
Connecting rod. 
Forming. Single throw 

crankshaft. 
Hammer heads for 
Welding. machine shop 

stock. 

Lectures and Recitations. — History of blacksmithing, 
sources of supply, machine forging, Bessemer processes, 
open hearth processes, high speed steel. 

Visits of Inspection. — General jobbing shop, steam 
forge shop, drop forge shop, rolling mill. 



EXERCISE NO. 1 

Stock — Norway Iron — y 2 " x %" — Convenient length. 

Explanation. — One end of the stock is to be drawn 
until a length of 5" or more is %"x%" ; 5" of the drawn 
portion is then to be cut off on the hardie end, the cut end 
squared. 

The finished piece, A (Figure 301), must be smooth, 
true to size, square in section and straight. 

Operation. — Beginning near the end of the stock, strike 
every other blow on a given face, and the alternate blows 
on one of the adjoining faces. Occasionally turn the 
work so that the two faces previously on the anvil may 
be brought under the hammer. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



399 



To mark the work where it is to be cut hold the square 
to the edge of the hardie across which slide the stock 
as indicated by the arrow, B, until its end is opposite the 
5" mark on the square. Put down square, take up ham- 
mer, and strike a light blow. After this cut on all four 




ANVIL 



FIRST \dr*\ -/ SL T^ / SECOND 

POSIT ION B \ \ <-7 /A POSITION 



ANVIL. 



1 T^ 



ANVIL 
Figure 301. — Exercise No. 1. 



sides, C. Break the piece off by bringing the cut over the 
edge of the anvil, D, and deliver a blow on the end of the 
piece. 

To square the cut end, first upset, E, and then draw 
down to size. 

Caution. — If it is discovered that the stock is becom- 
ing diamond shaped, F, instead of square in section, ham- 
mer on the high sides, G. 



EXERCISE NO. 2 

Stock — Norway Iron — y 2 " x y 2 " — 5" long. 

Explanation. — Stock to be upset to 3" in length. The 
finished piece, A (Figure 302), must be sound, must be 



400 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



square and uniform in section. True to size, straight, and 
smooth. 

Operation. — The stock having been brought to a white 
heat, blows are to be delivered as shown by B. One result 



STRIKE^ 
TONqs 



□ 





NOTE- TONGS MAY BE MADE TO REVOLVE 
ABOUT THE STOCK AS A CENTER SO 
THAT ANY FACE* OF THE LATTER MAY 
BE BROUGHT IN CONTACT WITH ANVIL. 
WITHOUT CHANCING THE RELATIVE 

Position of ToNqs and stock. 



-U 



TONqs 



SURFACE 



ANVIL. 



WATER «-J 

FIRST POSITION SECOND POSITION 

Figure 302. — Exercise No. 2. 



of such blows is illustrated by C. The stock may be 
straightened without changing the tongs, D, or the tongs 
may be changed to one end. A second result of blows, B, 
is shown by E. This may be overcome and the piece upset 
evenly, by slightly cooling the ends, F. 

Caution. — Do not work the stock after it has cooled to 
a bright red heat. Strike true or the stock is likely to fly 
from the tongs, endangering your own safety and the 
safety of others. Do not attempt to straighten unless the 
stock is hot. In straightening be sure that the work beds 
well on the anvil before striking it, otherwise it is likely 
to fly. Do not take so much time in cooling that, F, the 
body of the stock will become cool. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



401 



EXERCISE NO. 3 

Stock — Norway Iron — %" diameter — 6" long. 

Explanation. — A round section is to be drawn to a 
square ; a square to an octagon ; and an octagon to a round 
point. 

The finished piece must agree with the drawing, A 
(Figure 303), in form and dimensions. 




DIRECTIOM 
OF BLOW 



ANVIL 



HARDIE 



Figure 303. — Exercise No. 3. 



Operation. — Square one end of stock (see Z>), make 
center punch mark 2" from squared end. After heating 
with squared end of stock in tongs, bring center punch 
mark over edge of anvil and strike one blow, B. Turn 
the stock through an angle of 90° and strike a second 
blow, C. Draw the stock to a square section as shown 
byD. 

Lay off center punch mark 4" from squared end, and 
proceeding as before, produce the form E. 

hay off center punch mark 6" from squared end and 
draw the point first to a square, F, and then to a round, 
G. If there is excess of stock cut it off on the hardie, H. 



402 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Caution. — -Do not let the shoulders, E, cover the punch 
marks. Better form them a little in front of the mark 
and draw them back to it. 

When rounding the point turn the stock ; turn the stock 
first in one direction, then in the opposite, otherwise the 
point will be twisted off. The point will split if drawn at 
too low a heat. 



EXERCISE NO. 4 

Stock — Norway Iron — y 2 " diameter — 5" long. 

Explanation. — A piece of y 2 " round stock is to be upset 
until a portion of its length is large enough to form a y 2 " 




WATER 



Figure 304. — Exercise No. 4. 

square. The finished piece must agree with the drawing, 
A .(Figure 304). 

Operation. — Make a center punch mark 2" from one 
end and heat from end to punch mark. Apply the tongs 
to the side of the stock before taking the latter from the 
fire. If the portion heated is too long, cool to punch 
mark, C. In any case cool the extremity of the heated 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



403 



end slightly, to avoid the effect illustrated by F (Figure 
302). Strike as shown by B (Figure 304). Continue to 
upset until the enlarged portion is about %" in diameter, 
then draw to a square. If when down to size, the corners 
are not sharp, upset again. By drawing they will become 
sharp. The square portion completed, finish the opposite, 
A, in the illustration, B. 

Caution, — If it is necessary to cool the stock to the 
punch mark, C, give it a very slight up end motion, so 
that the change from hot to cold may not be too abrupt. 
Otherwise the stock is likely to crack on the line of the 
surface of the water. 



EXERCISE NO. 5 

Stock— Common Iron — y±" diameter — 8%" long. 

Explanation. — A piece of y±" stock is to be bent to a 
circle. The finished piece, A (Figure 305), must be free 




Figure 305. — Exercise No. 5. 

from hammer marks, as nearly a true circle as possible, 
and ' ' out of wind. ' ' 

The blacksmith's rule for finding the length of stock 
for an unwelded ring is " 3 x inside diameter -f 3 x width 
of stock" : In this case, (3 x 2y 2 ") + (3 x y^") = 8%". 
If the ring is to be welded, one half the thickness is added. 



404 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

This rule applies to rectangular sections as well as to 
round sections. For example, suppose the ring, B, is to 
be made. The necessary stock will be 3 x 3" (inside diam- 
eter) + 3x14" (width) + iy 2 " (half the thickness) = 

WW'. 

Operation. — Heat to a cherry red about half the length 
of the stock. Allow the end of the heated portion to pro- 
ject about %" over the horn, and strike as shown by C, 
with the effect shown by D. Advance the stock over the 
horn after each blow until half the stock is bent, as at E. 
Change. the stock in the tongs, F, and repeat the opera- 
tion. The result will be a ring more or less round. 

An examination will show that some portions of the 
stock are bent too short, while others are not short enough. 
To unbend the stock when the curve is too short, strike 
as shown by O. 

Having completed the ring as seen in plan, examine 
it in elevation. If it is ' c in wind ' ' it will appear as shown 
in H. To get the ring out of wind hold it flat on the face 
of the anvil and strike with light blows the low parts, 
which will then seem to rise to the level of the adjoin- 
ing portions. 

Caution. — As there is no opportunity to smooth the 
work by hammering, the stock must not at any time be 
heated hot enough to scale. 

Never strike the stock directly over the horn, 7, as such 
blows can have no bending effect. 



EXERCISE NO. 6 

Stock— Norway Iron— %" x %"— 5%" long. 

Explanation. — The finished piece must be smooth and 
must agree with the form and dimensions shown by A 
(Figure 306). 

Operation. — Lay off punch marks as shown by B. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



405 



Guided by marks, draw the stock to the form shown by C. 
To bend the large eye, A, first set the stock back as shown 
by D, then begin at the end and bend, as in E. 

The small eye, A, is to be formed in the same way. To 
twist the body, heat between the punch marks C and J), 
in B, to an even dull red, drop one end of the stock in 




^$Lridj4_i*Lj 



X A PIA- 



ffiS 



-3- 



£ 



~wrr 



%+¥* 



Figure 306. — Exercise No. 6. 



the vise to the punch mark C and apply the tongs at the 
punch mark D, all as shown by F; then carry the tongs 
once around and the twist will be made. 

Caution. — In setting back the stock, D, be careful that 
the blows do not fall directly over the horn ; unless care 
is exercised the stock will be reduced at E, in D. 

After the stock has been fastened in the vise for twist- 
ing, the operation must go on rapidly ; if too much time 
is taken the vise will absorb heat from the stock and the 
twist will be uneven. 



406 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



EXERCISE NO. 7. 

Stock — Norway Iron — %" x V— Convenient length. 

Explanation. — The stock is folded to form three thick- 
nesses, H (Figure 307), which are to be welded together. 
The welding finished, the welded portion is to be cut 
off and brought to the form and dimensions shown by A. 

Operation. — Lay off center punch marks A and B, in 
illustration B, and repeat B on opposite face. With the 



5 



X 



-1— tU- 



4- 



fe 



A-*f 8-~ 



L-3'*-U'4 



/A / P 



D 



T P^ 



v* 



k A 






I ANVIL 



mt 



1 ANVIL. • ' ANVIL. I «== 



Figure 307. — Exercise No. 7. 



stock at the point A, at a white heat carry it over the 
rounded edge of the anvil, as in C, and bend first by strik- 
ing at B y in C, and then at E, in D, and so on until the 
form, E, is produced. Next strike F, producing the 
form, G. 

Guided by the punch mark B and operating as before, 
produce the form, H . 

Secure a welding heat over the whole piece and strike 
with heavy blows as shown by arrows, in H. Stop strik- 
ing the instant the stock has cooled below a w r elding heat. 
Before taking a second welding heat, peen the joints be- 
tween the layers as shown along GH, in I. The joints 
on both faces having been peened, take a second welding 
heat and after delivering two or three blows as shown by 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 407 

the arrows, H, turn the work and deliver the blows on the 
edges, as in J. 

When the welding is completed, draw the piece to %" 
square; cut off the ragged ends, making the stock 3%" 
long. 

Locate a punch mark 1" from each end and draw to 
the form shown by the finished piece, A. 

If, after welding, the stock is less than %" square, 
allowance must be made for upsetting, before cutting 
it off. 

Caution. — Be sure that the welding heat is where it 
is wanted and that the different pieces to be welded are 
equally heated. 

Remember that every blow delivered after the welding 
heat is gone unnecessarily reduces the stock, which is 
thus likely to come ' ' undersize ' ' before it is finished. 



EXERCISE NO. 8 

Stock — Norway Iron — 1 Piece %" x V— 3" long. 

1 Piece %" x 1"— Conv. length. 

Explanation. — A three-inch piece is to be welded to the 
end of a longer piece, forming a "scarfed weld." The 
welded portion is to be cut to length and finished as shown 
by A (Figure 308). 

Operation. — The finished piece is to be of the same 
cross section as the stock. The latter must therefore be 
upset enough to make up for waste in welding, B. The 
proper form of scarf is known by C. To produce it carry 
the stock to the edge of the anvil and draw as indicated 
by D, striking on the edges as much as may be necessary 
to keep them from spreading beyond the width of the 
stock. The scarfed ends of both pieces having been 
brought to a welding heat, they are to be "struck" as 
follows : First, with the tongs holding the shorter piece 



408 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



in the right hand, and. longer piece of stock in the left 
hand (the scarfs of both being down in the fire) draw 
both out and give them a sharp rap on the anvil, E, to 
remove coal, etc., from the surface of the scarfs. Next 
bring the short piece to the position shown by A in F, and 
follow with the longer piece to the position of the dotted 
outline B. Without losing contact between the longer 
piece and the anvil, bring B down upon A as shown. The 
contact with the anvil assists in controlling the move- 
ments of B. When B is once placed on A, a little pres- 

A 



ZZ1 



Q# 



5 



5 




ANVIL | 




o 'ANVIL. 



C 
IZZ 



2 A THICK SCARF 

RE3VLT OF THICK 
-tSCARF A CRACK 

"^R eno at C 



Figure 308. — Exercise No. 8. 



sure on the former will hold both in their relative posi- 
tion, while the tongs are dropped, as in F (thus relieving 
the right hand) the hammer taken and a blow delivered 
in the direction of the scarf. The amount the pieces 
should lap is shown by G. As soon as the pieces are 
stuck the ends of the scarf must be brought down, H, 
and if thick must be peened out to the edge, shown by H. 

Draw to size (%"xl") ; square the end beyond the 
weld, measuring from the squared end, cut the stock to 
length, and square the cut end. 

Caution. — Do not make the scarfs too long ; increasing 
their length increases the length of the portion to be 
welded. They are sufficiently long when they may be 
hammered down without cutting. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



409 



EXERCISE NO. 9 



Stock — Common Iron — %" diameter — 9" long. 

Explanation. — A piece of common iron is to be bent 
to a ring and welded. The finished work must agree with 
the form and dimensions shown by A, Figure 309. 

Operation. — Upset the stock at both ends as shown by 
B. If a scarf for round stock be made the same as for 
square or flat stock, C, that of one piece will fold itself 




3CARFEDFAC£ 



JCyVRFE 

<3^ 




Figure 309. — Exercise No. 9. 

about the other piece so that in welding the hammer must 
follow around the stock before all parts are reached : 
moreover, the effect of a blow on any portion of the scarf, 
C, tends to spread other portions, as at B, away from the 
center of the work. These difficulties are avoided by 
making the scarf end in a point which may be easily 
covered by the hammer. D may be considered a typical 
form for round stock. It is best drawn by using the 
hammer on three faces only. The ends must be scarfed 
in opposite directions as shown by E. 

Bend the stock so as to bring the scarfs in the relative 
positions shown by F. Thus bent the piece may be weld- 
ed entirely on the face of the anvil, after which it may 
be drawn to a uniform section on the horn. 



410 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



To make the ring round, heat it to a dull red, press it 
as far up on the horn as it will go and turn it slowly while 
it is being lightly hammered. 

Caution. — Common iron cannot be worked at a low 
heat and it will not stand a very high heat. For up- 
setting it must be nearly to a welding heat. For weld- 
ing it must be taken from the fire as soon as it is hot 
enough to stick. 



EXERCISE NO. 10 

Stock— Norway Iron— y 2 " x y 2 "— 8y 2 " long. 

Explanation. — It is easy to bend a piece of stock so 
that one part will stand at right angles with the other, 
but it is not easy to draw the stock to a sharp corner as 
in A, Figure 310. This is the essential feature of the 





• w •? 




< \ 


l& 


A 

V 



Jfc» 




ANVIL. 



*% ^ 



ANVIL 
Figure 310. — Exercise No. 10. 



exercise. The finished piece must be sound and square 
and must agree with the drawing in form and dimensions. 
Operation. — Heat the piece in the center; cool the 
ends and bend the sides to angle of about 110°, as in C. 
Hold an end of the piece, A, in the tongs, and resting the 
other end, B, on the anvil, deliver a series of blows in the 
direction of the arrow A. Then hold the piece by the 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 411 

other end, B, and with the end A on the anvil, deliver 
blows as before. Such blows will tend to produce a 
surface as CD, in B, which may be worked down to meet 
each other. As the surfaces come to a corner, bend the 
sides in so that they will be at an angle of 90° at the 
same time the corner is formed. Cool the ends back 
about two inches every time after heating, to keep them 
in shape as much as possible. When the corner is square 
make the parts straight and square with each other. 
Square the ends, cutting them to length if necessary. 

Caution, — In drawing the corners do not, at first, have 
the angle any more accurate than is shown in C and do 
not at any time deliver blows directly down as indicated 
by D. A mistake in either of these respects will result 
in a crack as indicated by E. Moreover do not attempt 
to forge the inside corner sharp ; a corner thus forged 
not only offers a starting place for a break when the 
finished forging is under strain, but in most cases the 
process of making starts the crack. 



EXERCISE NO. 11 

Stock— Norway Iron— 1 Piece %" x !"—%%". 

1 Piece %" x 1"— ±%". 

Explanation. — The exercise gives practice in welding 
two pieces at right angles with each other as shown by 
A, Figure 311. The finished piece must be sound, must 
have a good weld and must agree with the drawing in 
form and dimensions. 

Operation. — Upset both pieces as shown by B. In 
scarfing the important thing is to have such parts of each 
piece that are to lap on the other piece drawn to an edge 
so that there will be nothing on one piece to cut into the 
other. This will be better understood by reference to 
C which shows the pieces scarfed. See also D. 



412 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Before taking a welding heat, practice taking the 
pieces from the fire and placing them together (See Fig- 
ure 308, E and F.) When the weld is made, smooth and 
form to dimensions. 

Caution.— Be very sure that you stick the pieces in 
their proper relative position. Be sure to get the pieces 





4 


1 




r 


j£ 




% 


' 





b 


c 






■A 




u* 


L~J U 



«•• 



QD 



UV) 



u* AMOUNT OF LAP 



D 



Figure 311. — Exercise No. 11. 



scarfed as shown in C, unless for a left-handed person. 
In this case the scarfs must be opposite to these shown in 
C, so that the piece Y may be held in the right hand and 
placed upon the piece X. 



EXERCISE no. 12 

Stock — Norway Iron — 1 piece y±" x 1" — 5" — called X. 

1 piece i/4" x 1"— 4"— called Y. 

Explanation. — This exercise, while similar to the pre- 
ceding, is more difficult in heating and welding. The 
finished T should agree with the drawing, A, Figure 
312, in form and dimensions. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



413 



Operation. — Upset X as shown by B, and Y as shown 
by Figure 312, C. Scarf as shown by D. The pieces 
should be lapped for welding so that the points A will 
agree with points A', D. 




Figure 312. — Exercise No. 12. 

Caution. — Difficulty is experienced in heating X at 
the scarf, it being easier to heat the end. The fire should 
be small so that the end may be passed through it. If 
in spite of precautions taken the end does heat faster 
than the scarf, cool it before it reaches a welding heat. 



414 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



EXERCISE NO, 13 

Stock — Norway Iron — %" x 1" — any length. 
Steel * %"xl"— 4". 

Welding steel to iron and steel to steel. 

Operation. — Draw the stock %" x y 2 " and scarf one 
end of each as for a ,scarf weld. Draw the iron 2" from 
the end. 

Welding.— When welding steel, borax is used as a 
flux, to prevent the steel from burning. Heat the iron to 
a red heat before putting the steel in the fire. When the 



-8- 



A*> 



-%- 



-2!< 



5 



2* 



Jf 



^ii. 



EJ 



Figure 313.— Exercise No. 13. 

steel becomes bright red put on the flux and replace it 
in the fire. Watch it carefully and when small white 
blisters are seen coming on its surface, it is at the proper 
heat to weld ; be sure that the iron is brought to the prop- 
er heat at the same time. After this weld is made scarf 
and punch the end of the steel as shown by Figure 313, 
B, and cut off 2*4" from the end; scarf and punch the 
end from which the piece was cut off, rivet the pieces as 
shown in C and it will be ready to weld. Weld and draw 
the whole piece to the form and sizes given in A. 

STEEL FORGING 

The Fire. — The fire should be kept clean and well 
banked ; the coal should be well coked before the steel is 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



415 



put into the fire. Do not let the fire get hollow, but keep 
a good bed of coals for the work. 

Heating, — Keep the steel well covered with coals: 
heat slowly by using light draft. Turn the steel occasion- 
ally so that it may be heated evenly. Never heat hotter 
than a cherry red, as overheating destroys the good 
qualities of the steel. 

Forging. — Steel forging is similar to iron forging. 
Heavy blows should be delivered so that the piece may 
be formed with as little heating as possible. Never ham- 
mer the steel after it loses its redness. 



EXERCISE NO. 14 

Stock — Norway Iron — IV2" diameter. Finished Piece, 
from Exercise No. 4. 



A 


/^N 


*■ 


O 


i**i 


■* 


wv 



SCARF E F 

ANVlLl\ sc 



MVIlIJ 



ANVIL 



ANVIL I 



i2£ 



ANVIL 



£f\ ANVIL 



SCARF 

Figure 314. — Exercise No. 14. 



H 

A DRIFT 



v 



ft POINT 



Explanation. — The finished piece must agree with 
Figure 314, A, in form and dimensions. 

Operation. — Make center punch mark 1%" from round 
end, heat to a white heat, place the mark over the edge of 



416 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the anvil, and bend as shown by B. Deliver blows as in- 
dicated by C, taking care that they fall in line with the 
stock, and that latter does not bend in any direction, 
as for example, in the direction A and B. When the 
stock is reduced to the proportions shown by D, draw 
the scarf, as in E. 

Deliver one blow as indicated in D, and then turn the 
stock and strike aa shown by F. Draw the eye to the 
proper thickness and make it round in plan, as in G. By 
punching, the diameter of the eye will be increased by 
nearly y 8 " so that at this stage its diameter should 
be%". 

In punching the hole work from one side until a dark 
spot appears on the other side under the punch, then 
turn the work over, and guided by the dark spot, start 
the punch in the opposite direction. When the punch 
is well started, bring the stock over a hole in the anvil so 
as to allow the little button that is formed to drop out. 
The punched hole will agree with the taper of the punch ; 
to make its diameter uniform drive a drift-pin, as in H, 
entirely through. The drifted hole will correspond to 
the largest diameter of the drift-pin. 

Caution. — If the scarfing is not properly done, the 
stock will be cut where the eye joins the body. Do not 
keep the punch too long in the work ; strike two or three 
sharp blows, then dip the punch in water. 

If the punch becomes hot it will upset in the stock so 
that it cannot be easily withdrawn. 



EXERCISE NO. 15. 

Stock— Norway Iron — %" x %■" — Convenient length. 

Explanation. — This exercise in nail making affords 
excellent practice in the use of the heading tool. Five 
nails are to be made, each as nearly as possible of the 
form shown by A, Figure 315. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



417 



Operation. — Draw the stock to the form shown by B 
and try it in the heading tool to make sure that it will 
enter to the shoulder, leaving sufficient material above 
the shoulder to form the head. Cut all around as shown 
by C. Heat between the shoulder and cut, thrust the 
stock into the heading tool, and by a forward and back- 




A 



5 



(1 



ri2£ 



■ zK 



C 



#+ z% 



K J 



\i/ 



D 



ANVIL i 



HEADINC TOO 



^4 



^ANVlC 





Figure 315. — Exercise No. 15. 

ward movement, break it off at the cut. Deliver blows as 
shown by D to make the head. 

If it is found that the head is formed on one side of 
the body, F, draw in the proper direction by blows as in- 
dicated by arrow. 

By a little practice one can make a nail at a single 
heat. 

Caution. — Do not allow the nail to become injured by 
the conditions illustrated by F. 



418 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



EXERCISE NO. 16 

Stock — Norway Iron — y 2 " diameter, 6^4" long. 

Explanation. — The finished piece is shown by Figure 
316, A. The body must be straight and concentric with 
the head. If the proper amount of stock is not secured 
in the head, its diameter should be maintained at the ex- 
pense of its thickness. 



o 



a 



m 



k-V- 



u 



3 






V 







b 



1 £ 




1 



V 



AFTER 
1st. 2md 3rd. 3.RD. 

blow Blow blow Blow 

OOP o 

D 

HALF SECTION 



A 



ANVIL 



1 




Figure 316. — Exercise No. 16. 



Operation. — Upset as shown by B. If the end in 1 
becomes battered or upset, it must be drawn to its orig 
inal diameter. Forge to the form shown by C, taking 
care that the upset portion is in the center of the stock 
See E. Take the stock from the heading tool and strife 
three blows as indicated by D. If the surfaces thui 
produced are an equal distance apart continue to drav 
them without regard to the diameter of the head, unti 
the proportion of the head in plan is satisfactory. If i 
is found that some of the faces are becoming wider thai 
others, draw as shown by E. After getting the form ii 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



419 



plan, use heading tool again to bring the head to thick- 
ness. So continue until the head is finished. 

Caution. — Be careful that in using the heading tool 
the first time, C, the stock is not made too thin. The 
center of the head cannot be thickened: the most that 
can be done if it is once made too thin is represented by 
F. 



EXERCISE NO. 17 

Stock — Norway Iron — I" x y 2 " — Convenient length. 

Square Nut.— Finished to dimensions and form of 
A, Figure 317, process shown by illustration. 



© 


f 
i 


t^t'H 






* 



b 


<-l -. 




i 






c 


Ki 




i 


■& 





Stock — Norway Iron— l"x% // — Convenient length. 

Hexagon Nut. — Finished at form and dimensions of J) f 
Figure 317 ; process shown by illustration. 




-^ 



i * 





H 



Figure 317. — Exercise No. 17. 



420 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



EXERCISE NO. 18 

Stock — Norway Iron — 3 Pieces — T V diameter — 6" 

long. 

Three links of a chain, shown in A, Figure 318, form 
the finished piece. 

Operation. — Upset each end of the piece, taking one 
leat for each end. Heat the piece in the center, cool 




) 
rouqs 

Figure 318. — Exercise No. 18. 



v^ 



about 1%" of each end and bend to the shape of the 
letter U, as in JS. 

In scarfing the ends, place one end upon the sharp 
edge of the anvil, as in C, and striking light blows, 
swing the piece around, bringing the toe of the scarf to 
a thin edge. After one end is scarfed turn the piece 
over and scarf the other in the same manner. Bend the 
scarfed ends over the horn of the anvil so they will lap 
as shown by D. 

Weld and finish two links each independent of the 
other and complete in itself. Bring third link to the 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 



421 



form of D. Spread the ends in the direction shown by 
arrows and slip on the finished links. Apply the tongs 
as shown in E, close the ends of the link, and weld. In 
finishing see that the links are of the same size and form. 



EXERCISE no. 19 

Stock — Norway Iron — %"xl" — 4%" long. 

The hook as shown by A, Figure 319, is the finished 
piece. 




Figure 319. — Exercise No. 19. 

Operation. — Lay off center punch mark 1" from one 
end. Heat and draw first to the form shown by B, then 
to that shown by C. Set over the end, C, and finish as 
shown by D. 



422 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Cut the corners, punch the hole, as in E and draw the 
<eye on the horn to the form shown by E. 

Heat at 0, in illustration F, cool the eye and bend as 
rsliown by Q. Complete the bending as indicated by the 
dotted lines in G. 



EXERCISE NO. 20 




B 



£ 



ROUND I 
COffNFR 



A.NVIU 



Square 
Corner ■ 




W^ 



D piece IN ROUGH RSTKOY J 

ROUND To -BE WELPEP TO HA NPLg 
CORNER 1 1 I 



S~ 



1 




Q H^^ I 

ANVIi. |X- >__> 

Figure 320. — -Exercise No. 20. 



K 



U 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 423 

Stock— Norway Iron— 1" x 1"— 8", 

V2" x y 2 " x 8"— 2 pieces. 

Tongs. — Finished to size and form of A, Figure 320. 
Process shown by illustrations : the two pieces are made 
alike and joined by a %" rivet. Illustration A shows 
position of weld in finished piece. 

Stock— Norway Iron— 1" x 1"— 8"— y 2 " diameter, 
13"— 2 pieces. 

Tongs. — Finished to size and form of F. Process 
shown by illustration : the two pieces are made alike and- 
joined by a %" rivet. 



X 

OUTLINE COURSE IN HAND FOEGING AND WELDING 
EMERGENCY WAR TRAINING 

This course of training, as recommended by the Fed- 
eral Board for Vocational Education, "Washington, D. 
C, is intended to prepare men for the field and base 
units of the Army. Eeliable work quickly done is the 
requirement. How much of this course a man can cover 
in a given time depends on his previous experience. 
A green man probably could not cover all that is given 
here in the time specified. In any case, sufficient prac- 
tice should be given to develop confidence and to get work 
right the first time. 

Army work consists chiefly of repairs of all kinds of 
equipment and is similar to that of the jobbing black- 
smith. Motorcycle, automobile, truck, gas engine, and 
wagon repairs are probably the most common. 

Methods of Conducting Class. — The work must consist 
largely of actual practice. What oral instruction is 
given should be largely demonstration. The following 
is suggested as a daily schedule : 

8 to 8 :30. Instruction and demonstration. 

8 :30 to 12. Forge practice. 

1 to 1 :30. Instruction and demonstration. 

1 :30 to 5. Forge practice. 
(Note. — The first part of the course will require more 
time for instruction before the class. Later the im- 
portant thing is practice.) 

Emphasis should be laid upon working direct from 
the broken piece or sample and from rough sketches 

424 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 425 

rather than from finished drawings. Practice on a 
portable forge should be given. 

In case of congestion, it would be possible to assign 
one or more men as helpers. It is not desirable to work 
more than one man at a forge at one time, but the men 
may act as helpers in rotation. One instructor should 
be available for every 24 men. 

Equipment. — The equipment necessary is that of a 
good trade school or commercial shop, approximately as 
follows : 

One forge, anvil, and tools for each man. 

One hand shear, one cone, and one swage block for 
every 15 men. 

One portable forge for every 15 men. 

FUNDAMENTALS 

Give careful instruction about building a fire. Insist 
on clean, deep fire of thoroughly coked coal. Keep the 
fire no larger than necessary for the work being done. 

Lesson 1. — Heat and draw out stock to increase its 
length by at least % inch, using stock % or % inch 
diameter. 

Lesson 2. — Point iron or soft steel %-inch diameter 
with cone point and square pyramid point, making taper 
l!/2 inches in length. Points must not be split or twisted. 

Lesson <?.— Shape stock %-inch round into S hook, and 
staples with square points. 

Shape stock *4 inch square into twisted gate hook. 

Insist on good proportions and symmetry. 

Lesson 4. — Upset stock % by % by 5 inches till it is 
4 inches long and uniform section. 

Upset stock %-inch diameter by 5 inches till it is 4 
inches long and uniform section. 

Lesson 5.— Upset and form standard bolt heads (both 
square and hexagonal) on stock % or % inch diameter. 
Use heading tool. 



426 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

Lesson 6. — Make standard nuts (square and hex- 
agonal) for y 2 , %, and % inch bolts. Have hole central 
and tap drill size. 

Lesson 7. — Make bolts with standard square and hex- 
v agonal heads by welding on stock for heads. Size % 
inch or over. 

Lesson 8. — Weld square and round stock, size y 2 to % 
inch, with and without helper. Have finished welds fuxl 
size and thoroughly welded. Test by bending. 

Lesson 9. — Chain ring, stock y 2 inch. King to be 
round and uniform in section. Make several % inch 
single chain links. Keep the links uniform in size, shape 
and section. 

Lesson 10. — Chain 4 feet of % inch. Keep links small, 
uniform, welds sound. Attach ring from No. 9. 

Lesson 11. — Grab hook, stock % inch square. Punch 
the eye and bend to shape. Attach to chain No. 10. 
C hook, weld, eye. 

Lesson 12. — Make band ring 5 inches inside diameter 
and flat ring 5 inches outside diameter. Stock 14 by 
1 inch. Shrink band ring on flat ring. Make band 
ring smaller, if necessary, by heating and cooling first 
one edge and then the other. 

Lesson 13. — Flat lap weld. Stock y± by 1 inch. Test 
by bending. 

Lesson 14. — T and angle welds. Stock 44 by 1 inch. 
Emphasize the advantage of fillet, where one can be per- 
mitted. 

Lesson 15. — Butt or jump weld. Stock 1 inch diameter 
or over. 

PRACTICE JOBS 

Lesson 1. — Open-end wrenches to fit standard nuts for 
y 2 to 1-inch bolts. Closed wrenches to fit standard nuts, 
bolts, or fittings of 2 inches or more in size. Spanner 
wrenches of miscellaneous size and type. 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 427 

Lesson 2. — One pair plain tongs. One pair chain-link 
tongs. 

Lesson 3. — One pair bolt tongs or box- jaw tongs. Re- 
dress two or more tongs. 

Lesson 4. — Make collar from % by iy 2 inch stock. 
Shrink this collar on pipe or bar having a diameter 
between 4 and 6 inches. 

Lesson 5. — Weld broken rods and other pieces that re- 
quire to be of fixed length when finished. 

Lesson 6. — Stop leaks in water jackets by shrinking 
bands on the part. Also by use of split collars drawn 
together with bolts. 

STEELWORK 

(Note. — The following points are to be emphasized 
by lecture and demonstration.) 

Use clean, deep fire. Do not allow blast to strike steel 
without passing through a bed of coke Heat thoroughly. 
Forge at a good heat. Use heavy blows that will pene- 
trate deeply and thus avoid stretching the surface and 
starting internal flaws. 

Anneal before hardening. Harden at the lowest pos- 
sible heat and always on the rising heat. Temper by 
running or drawing the color or in tempering bath as 
is best for the work on hand. 

Lesson 1. — Make 3 cold chisels. One each from y 2 , 
%, and % inch octagon steel. Make one diamond-point 
chisel from % inch octagon steel. Make one %-inch 
cape chisel from %-inch octagon steel. 

(Tempering Note. — Explain and demonstrate the dif- 
ferent methods of tempering. Run the temper, draw 
the temper, flashing off oil, and tempering in bath.) 

Lesson 2. — Temper chisels and punches by running the 
temper. 

(Caution. — Avoid overheating the edge or corners. If 
any part is overheated, lay the tool one side till it cools 



42S SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

to black heat; then reheat and harden on rising 
heat.) 

Lesson 3. — Make hardie to fit anvil. Draw to an edge 
by sledge and fuller. 

(Caution. — Heat thoroughly. Work with heavy 
blows. ) 

Lesson 4.— Redress and temper several hardies or 
handled chisels. 

Lesson 5. — Make or redress and temper rock drills. 
Redress and temper hand picks. Sharpen and temper 
mattocks. 

STEEL WELDING 

Emphasize the following : Use of flux, clean fire, deep 
fire, heavy blows with heavy hammer to thoroughly weld 
the pieces. 

Lesson 1, — Weld steel to iron. Lap weld and split 
weld. 

Lesson 5. — Lay steel on mattocks and steel bits in 
picks. 

Lesson 3. — Weld leaf springs. Hammer-temper these 
springs. Set the spring leaves and assemble the full 
spring. 

Lesson 4. — Temper flat, leaf, and other springs. 
Harden in oil and flash, also harden and draw the temper 
as is best suited to the spring in hand. Practice each 
method. 

Lesson 5. — Case-harden bolts, nuts, and pins. Caution 
in the use of cyanide. 

ADVANCED JOB WORK 

Lesson 1. — Straighten structural iron or steel shapes 
as angle iron, channel iron, and I beams. Straighten 
auto frames. 

Lesson 2. — Straighten connecting rods and axles. 

Lesson 3. — Babbitt connecting rods. Set up rods on 



HAND FORGING AND WELDING 42& 

babbitting fixtures with liners properly in place. Pre- 
heat the head and mandrel. Have metal proper heat. 

Lesson 4. — Replace broken lugs by forged pieces 
fastened on by studs or cap screws. Use care in screw- 
ing into thin cast-iron walls. 

Lesson 5. — Stop leaks by shrinking bands on the part, 
also by split collars drawn together by bolts. 

Lesson 6. — Set tires on cart and wagon wheels. Ex- 
plain "dish." 

Lesson 7. — Repair broken straps, braces, and other 
iron parts on wagons. Other repair jobs that may be 
encountered. 

Lesson 8. — Make riveting hammer. Temper the same. 
Dress hand hammers. 

Lesson 9. — Make handled cold and hot chisels. Fit 
handles to hammers and mount the same to give the 
proper "hang." 

Lesson 10. — Draw temper on tools that require temper- 
ing for considerable length of cutting edge, as reamers. 



XI 

BEAZING 

Brazing is a process for joining metal parts, very 
similar to soldering, except that brass is used to make 
the joint, in place of the lead and zinc alloys which form 
solder. Brazing must not be attempted on metals whose 
melting point is less than that of sheet brass 

Two pieces of brass, to be brazed together, are heated 
to a temperature at which the brass used in the process 
will melt and flow between the surfaces. The brass 
amalgamates with the surfaces and makes a very strong 
and perfect joint, which is far superior to any form of 
soldering where the work allows this process to be used, 
and in many cases is the equal of welding for the par- 
ticular field in which it applies. 

Brazing Heat and Tools. — The metal commonly used 
for brazing will melt at heats between 1350° and 
1650° Fahrenheit. To bring the parts to this temper- 
ature, various methods are employed, using solid, 
liquid, or gaseous fuels. While brazing may be ac- 
complished with the fire of the blacksmith forge, this 
method is seldom satisfactory, because of the difficulty 
of making a sufficiently clean fire with smithing coal, 
and it should not be used when anything else is avail- 
able. Large jobs of brazing may be handled with a 
charcoal fire built in the forge, as this fuel produces a 
very satisfactory and clean fire. The only objection is 
in the difficulty of confining the heat to the desired parts 
of the work. 

The most satisfactory fire is that from a fuel gas torch 

430 



BRAZING 431 

built for this work. These torches are simply forms of 
Bunsen burners, mixing the proper quantity of air with 
the gas to bring about a perfect combustion. Hose lines 
lead to the mixing tube of the gas torch, one line carry- 
ing the gas and the other air under a moderate pressure. 
The air line is often dispensed with, allowing the gas to 
draw air into the burner on the injector principle, much 
the same as with illuminating gas burners for use with 
incandescent mantles. Valves are provided with which 
the operator may regulate the amount of both gas and 
air, and ordinarily the quality and intensity of the flame. 

When gas is not available, recourse may be had to the 
gasoline torch made for brazing. This torch is built in 
the same way as the small portable gasoline torches for 
soldering operations, with the exception that two regulat- 
ing needle valves are incorporated in place of only one. 

The torches are carried on a framework, which also 
supports the work being handled. Fuel is forced to the 
torch from a large tank of gasoline, into which air pres- 
sure is pumped by hand. The torches are regulated to 
give the desired flame by means of the needle valves, in 
much the same way as with any other form of pressure 
torch using liquid fuel. 

Another very satisfactory form of torch for brazing 
is the acetylene-air combination, a form of torch which 
burns the acetylene after mixing it with atmospheric 
air at normal pressure. This torch gives the correct 
degree of heat and may be regulated to give a clean and 
easily controlled flame. 

Regardless of the source of heat, the fire or flame must 
be adjusted so that no soot is deposited on the metal 
surfaces of the work. This can only be accomplished by 
supplying the exact amounts of gas and air that will 
produce a complete burning of the fuel. With the braz- 
ing torches in common use, two heads are furnished, be- 
ing supplied from the same source of fuel, but with 



432 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

separate regulating devices. The torches are adjustably 
mounted, in such a way that the flames may be directed 
toward each other, heating two sides of the work at the 
same time and allowing the pieces to be completely sur- 
rounded with the flame. 

Except for the source of heat, but one tool is required 
for ordinary brazing operations, this being a spatula, 
formed by flattening one end of a quarter-inch steel rod. 
The spatula is used for placing the brazing metal on the 
work and for handling the flux that is required in this 
work, as in all other similar operations. 

Spelter. — The metal that is melted into the joint is 
called spelter. While this name originally applied to 
but one particular grade or composition of metal, com- 
mon use has extended the meaning until it is generally 
applied to all grades. 

Spelter is variously composed of alloys containing 
copper, zinc, tin and antimony, the mixture employed 
depending on the work to be done. The different grades 
are of varying hardness, the harder kinds melting at 
higher temperatures than the soft ones and producing a 
stronger joint when used. The reasons for not using 
hard spelter in all cases are, first, the increased difficulty 
of working it, and, second, the fact that its melting point 
is so near to that of some of the metals brazed that there 
is great danger of melting the work as well as the spelter. 

The hardest grade of spelter is made from three- 
fourths copper with one-fourth zinc and is used for 
working on malleable and cast iron and for steel. This 
hard spelter melts at about 1650° and is correspondingly 
difficult to handle. 

A spelter suitable for working with copper is made 
from equal parts of copper and zinc, melting at about 
1400° Fahrenheit, 500° below the melting point of the 
copper itself. A still softer brazing metal is composed of 
half copper, three-eighths zinc and one-eighth tin. This 



BRAZING 433 

grade is used for fastening brass to iron and copper and 
for working with large pieces of brass to brass. 

For brazing thin sheet brass and light brass castings, 
a metal is used which contains two-thirds tin and one- 
third antimony. The low melting point of this composi- 
tion makes it very easy to work with, and the danger of 
melting the work is very slight. However, as might be 
expected, a comparatively weak joint is secured, which 
will not stand any great strain. 

All of the above brazing metals are used in powder 
form, so that they may be applied with the spatula where 
the joint is exposed on the outside of the work. In case 
it is necessary to braze on the inside of a tube or in any 
deep recess, the spelter may be placed on a flat rod long 
enough to reach to the farthest point. By distributing 
the spelter at the proper points along the rod it may be 
placed at the right points by turning the rod over after 
inserting it into the recess. 

Flux. — In order to remove the oxides produced under 
brazing heat and to allow the brazing metal to flow free- 
ly into place, a flux of some kind must be used. The com- 
monest flux is simply a pure calcined borax powder; 
that is, a borax powder that has been heated until prac- 
tically all the water has been driven off. 

Calcined borax may also be mixed with about 15 
per cent of sal ammoniac to make a satisfactory fluxing 
powder. It is absolutely necessary to use flux of some 
kind and a part of whatever is used should be made into 
a paste with water, so that it can be applied to the joint 
to be brazed before heating. The remainder of the 
powder should be kept dry for use during the operation 
and after the heat has been applied. 

Preparing the Work. — The surfaces to be brazed are 
first thoroughly cleaned with files, emery cloth, or sand 
paper. If the work is greasy, it should be dipped into 
a bath of lye or hot soda water, so that all trace of oil 



434 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

is removed. The parts are then placed in the relation 
to each other that they are to occupy when the work has 
been completed. The edges to be joined should make a 
secure and tight fit, and should match each other at all 
points so that the smallest possible space is left between 
them. This fit should not be so tight that it is necessary 
to force the work into place, neither should it be loose 
enough to allow any considerable space between the 
surfaces. The molten spelter will penetrate between 
surfaces that water will flow between, when the work 
and spelter have both been brought to the proper heat. 
It is, of course, necessary that the two parts have a 
sufficient number of points of contact so that they will 
remain in the proper relative position. 

The work is placed on the surface of the brazing table 
in such a position that the flame from the torches will 
strike the parts to be heated, and with the joint in such 
a position that the melted spelter will flow through it 
and fill every possible part of the space between the 
surfaces, under the action of gravity. That means that 
the edge of the joint must be uppermost and the crack 
to be filled must not lie horizontal, but at the greatest 
slant possible. Better than any degree of slant would 
be to have the line of the joint vertical. 

The work is braced up or clamped in the proper posi- 
tion before commencing to braze, and it is best to place 
fire brick in such positions that it will be impossible for 
cooling draughts of air to reach the heated metal, should 
the flame be removed temporarily during the process. 
In case there is a large body of iron, steel, or copper to 
be handled, it is often advisable to place charcoal around 
the work, igniting this with the flame of the torch be- 
fore starting to braze, so that the metal will be main- 
tained at the correct heat without depending entirely on 
the torch. 

When handling brass pieces having thin sections, 



BRAZING ■ 435 

there is danger of melting the brass and causing it to 
flow away from under the flame, with the result that 
the work is ruined. If, in the judgment of the work- 
man, this may happen with the particular job in hand, 
it is well to build up a mold of fire clay back of the thin 
parts, or preferably back of the whole piece, so that 
the metal will have the necessary support. This mold 
may be made by mixing the fire clay into a stiff paste 
with water, and then packing it against the piece to 
be supported, tightly enough so that the form will be 
retained even if the metal softens. 

Brazing. — With the work in place, it should be well 
covered with the paste of flux and water, then heated 
until this flux boils up and runs over the surfaces. 
Spelter is then placed in such a position that it will run 
into the joint, and the heat is continued or increased 
until the spelter melts and flows in between the two 
surfaces. The flame should surround the work during 
the heating, so that outside air is excluded as far as is 
possible to prevent excessive oxidization. 

When handling brass or copper the flame should not 
be directed so that its center strikes the metal squarely, 
but so that it glances from one side or the other. Di- 
recting the flame straight against the work is often the 
cause of melting the pieces before the operation is com- 
pleted. When brazing two different metals, the flame 
should play only on the one that melts at the higher 
, temperature, the lower melting part receiving its heat 
from the other. This avoids the danger of melting one 
before the other reaches the brazing point. 

The heat should be continued only long enough to 
cause the spelter to flow into place and no longer. Pro- 
longed heating of any metal can do nothing but oxidize 
and weaken it, and this practice should be avoided as 
much as possible. If the spelter melts into small glob- 
ules in place of flowing, it may be caused to spread and 



436 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

run into the joint by lightly tapping the work. More 
dry flux may be added with the spatula if the tapping 
does not produce the desired result. 

Excessive use of flux, especially toward the end of 
the work, will result in a very hard surface on all the 
work, a surface which will be extremely difficult to 
finish properly. This trouble will be present to a certain 
extent anyway, but it may be lessened by a vigorous 
scraping with a wire brush just as soon as the work is 
removed from the fire. If allowed to cool before clean- 
ing, the final appearance will not be as good as with the 
surplus metal and scale removed immediately upon com- 
pleting the job. 

After the work has been cleaned with the brush, it 
may be allowed to cool, and is then finished to the de- 
sired shape, size, and surface by filing and polishing. 
When filed, a very thin line of brass should appear where 
the crack was at the beginning of the work. If it is 
desired to avoid a square shoulder and fill in an angle 
joint to make it rounding, the filling is best accomplished 
by winding a coil of very thin brass wire around the 
part of the work that projects, and then causing this to 
flow itself, or else allow the spelter to fill the spaces be- 
tween the layers of wire. Copper wire may also be 
used for this purpose, the spaces being filled with melted 
spelter 



XII 

PIPE BENDING 

Before taking up the construction of bends from flat 
sheet-metal, it will not be out of place to devote some 
little space to a consideration of the methods to employ, 
and the tools to use, in bending ordinary metal tubing. 
This is knowledge often wanted in the sheet-metal work- 
shop, and is by no means common there. The work- 
man who is unacquainted with these methods and tools 
finds great difficulty in giving to a straight piece of 
tubing a desired curvature; that is, so shaping it that 
the completed bend shall be free from ridges, dents, or 
kinks, and not flattened in the throat ; the perfection of 
a bend, of course, being when the internal diameter or 
bore of the tube is the same throughout. 

What has to be done in the way of pipe bending in 
the ordinary workshop must be done with the appliances 
that are usually found there, or can easily be made there. 
The tools necessary for the production of bends, especial- 
ly when smooth and circular in section, such as those of 
wind musical instruments, cannot be made in the ordin- 
ary sheet metal workshop. It will be well, however, to 
give also a brief description of the working of these 
bends. 

Iron or Gas Pipe Bends.- — The method of bending a 
pipe or tube varies with the metal, its diameter, and the 
curvature required. Ordinary gas pipe, of the smaller 
sizes, may readily be bent without any special prepara- 
tion to curves, even of small radius. A piece of iron, 
preferably round iron, being gripped in a vise, horizon- 

437 



438 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

tally or vertically as most convenient, and used as a ful- 
crum or bending post, the barrel may be shaped round it 
to the curve required. A slight curvature should first be 
given, then, changing the place of contact of pipe and 
fulcrum, a further curvature, and so on. A piece of 
wood, if of sufficiently large diameter to bear the strain 
it will be put to, may be similarly used. 

If the pipe is of so large a diameter that its bending 
against a piece of iron in the manner described is beyond 
the workman 's strength, it should be made red hot where 
the bend is to come. Thus softened, the workman will 
find the bending comparatively easy. 

In bending iron pipe in this way there is always a 
slight flattening in the throat of the bend. In such work, 
however, as iron pipe is generally used for, this flattening 
is not of consequence ; the thickness of the pipe and the 
toughness of the metal prevent any great amount of 
flattening. 

Bends of Copper, Brass, and Softer Metal Tubes. — The 
procedure necessary to bend tubes made of metals softer 
than iron, of copper, brass, zinc, tin, or lead, is less 
simple, and to prevent buckling, puckering or flattening, 
in the throat of a bend, such pipe must be "loaded." The 
materials used for loading are various, and the choice 
between them depends upon the metal of which the pipe 
to be bent is made, and greatly upon the finish and sym- 
metry required in the particular work to be done. Lead, 
rosin, pitch, and rosin and pitch in equal parts, are the 
substances most in favor. When set after being melted 
and run into the tube, they are found to bend without 
breaking as the bending of a tube progresses, and to 
offer the needful resistance to change of section of the 
tube. 

A spiral spring not closely coiled, or a piece of cane 
or solid rubber, may often be advantageously used to 
load soft metal pipe with. Either of these loadings can 



PIPE BENDING 439 

be pulled through the made bend, and will serve again 
and again as loading. A tightly rolled piece of paper 
will often serve, eyen for brass tubing. If used for brass 
tubing, it can be burned out if need be. 

In an emergency, and if the ends of the piece of tube 
to be bent are tightly corked or otherwise sealed up, and 
the look of the finished work is not of particular import- 
ance, a pipe may be loaded with sand, or even water. 
The reason why sand and water, as loading, are suitable 
only for an emergency, is that the plugging at one of the 
pipe ends often, gives way in the course of the 
bending. 

The melting point of lead is 323° Centigrade, and as a 
loading substance for brazed brass tube, lead has this 
disadvantage, that when melting it out of a bent tube, 
there is danger lest any weak spot in the brazed seam 
should crack or open up. Special care needs to be taken 
to warm up the tube slowly and equally in melting out 
the lead, because of this. 

When the lead has been run out of a bent tube, little 
particles of lead often remain in the tube, adhering to 
the surface. To dislodge these, the tube should be again 
warmed up to a temperature a little higher than that of 
the melting point of lead, and the open end struck smart- 
ly on the bench, or with a piece of wood, the tube being 
held with a pair of pliers, or otherwise as may be con- 
venient. 

Rosin or pitch, as loading substances, leave behind a 
thin adherent film after being melted out of a pipe. This 
must not be forgotten when choice of a loading substance 
has to be made. If it is imperative that the inner surface 
of a bent pipe should be clean, then neither of these 
substances can be used with a tube of soft metal, as the 
film has to be burnt off, which would mean spoiling the 
tube. They may be used with copper or brass tubing, 
when, for the reason that the throat of the bend need not 



440 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

be perfectly circular in section, it is desired that the load- 
ing substance shall not offer any great resistance to bend- 
ing. 

Brass or copper drawn tubing should be annealed be- 
fore being bent. 

Loading. — In loading a piece of pipe with either lead, 
pitch, or rosin, two or three layers of brown paper should 
be wrapped round one end of it and securely tied. If 
lead is the loading material, the tube should be rigidly 
fixed vertically, with its closed end embedded in sand, so 
that molten lead may not run out to do mischief. The 
lead may be poured from an ordinary plumbers' ladle. 
And in loading with pitch and rosin the tube should rest 
and be secured with its closed end on some solid substance, 
to prevent leaking out of the hot pitch or rosin. 

Bending Small Pipes. — Small copper pipes, tubes, and 
spouts are readily bent into curves without wrinkling, 
if they are first filled with lead. One end of the pipe is 
closed with thick brown paper, and the pipe laid in a 
box of damp sand, while the lead is being poured in. The 
lead must be soft. 

An iron rod is cast in with the lead, its end standing out 
at a distance of a few inches to afford the necessary lever- 
age for bending the pipe. This, of course, is melted out 
after the bending is done. The bending is variously 
effected, with a mallet or with leverage, or with both in 
combination. Before running the lead out, the outside 
of the work should be covered with a solution of whiting 
in water. 

Copper pipe may also be filled with rosin before bend- 
ing. Lead is better for quick bends, rosin for long ones. 
Only the part to be bent and that immediately beyond 
need be filled, a wad of paper, or cotton w T aste, being in- 
serted at the locality beyond which the filling material 
is not required. The part which has to be bent must be 
annealed first to a cherry red, in daylight. Portions 



PIPE BENDING 441 

which have to be left straight must be left unannealed, 
or hard. 

Bending by Power. — There are many methods and rigs 
adopted for bending copper pipes. Much depends on the 
size of the pipe. Up to about five inches diameter manual 
labor is sufficient, but above that hydraulic power is 
generally employed. The bending is always done by 
leverage or pressure, never by hammering. 

In all coppersmiths ' shops there is a strong bending 
block sunk in the floor for the purpose of pipe-bending. 
It is of cast iron, about twelve inches square, and standing 
up to about the ordinary height of a workbench. It is 
made to receive the various attachments required for 
pipe-bending. The top of the block is shouldered down 
to receive a strap, which confines a bending-block. The 
latter is a stout plate of lead, with a hole or holes in it 
for the insertion of pipes. The lead being soft does not 
bruise the pipe which is being bent. It is secured with 
the strap. On one side of the block a back plate is in- 
serted, with pins fitting into the holes cast in the block, 
which affords an essential point of leverage in the bend- 
ing of pipes. Holes are cast in the top of the block to 
receive pins, which also form suitable points of leverage. 

Planishing. — Most work in sheet copper is planished 
nt some stage or other. The object of planishing is to 
close and harden the grain of the metal, taking the limp- 
ness out of it, and to make it more elastic and rigid so 
that it will retain its shape. Often this operation is per- 
formed before any work is done upon the sheets, in order 
to make them stiff enough to work upon. Often it is 
done at a later stage. Planishing consists in hammering 
over the whole surface in detail until every portion has 
been subjected to the hardening effect of the hammer 
blows. The hammering is done in straight lines or in 
concentric curves, depending on the nature of the work. 
The planishing is done on a bottom stake, fixed in the 



442 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

floor-block, or on a level block of metal. Various hammers 
are used for different work. 

Copper goods are polished with a file first, followed by 
emery cloth applied on a stick, then by fine emery, rubbed 
on with hempen rope, wrapped round with a single hitch, 
and drawn to and fro, and finally with a metal burnisher 
and sweet oil. 



XIII 

PEOPEETIES OF METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 

The properties of the common metals and their alloys 
are well marked, and the different degrees in which these 
qualities are possessed by the different metals and alloys 
render each better adapted for certain purposes than the 
others. These properties are: 

Metallic luster, tenacity, ductility, malleability, con- 
ductivity, fusibility, specific gravity. 

Each of these qualities is of special value in its place. 
Thus, metallic luster is the capacity of the metal for tak- 
ing a polish in brightening, planishing, and finishing 
copper and tinned goods. Tenacity is the strength of a 
metal or alloy to resist stress, pressure, pulling, bending, 
in vessels, bars, rods, wires. Ductility is the capacity for 
drawing out, upon which property the art of wire-draw- 
ing is based. "Without malleability it would be impossible 
to roll thin sheets, or to flatten or raise them into curved 
forms. The good conductivity, or conducting power, of 
metals for heat renders them suitable for warming and 
domestic purposes, while their power of conducting 
electricity is a property of equal value, as bearing on 
wires and plates. Fusibility lies at the basis of all cast- 
ing, but though the sheet metal worker is but slightly in- 
terested in this branch, a knowledge of the fusibility of 
alloys is essential to the practice of brazing and soldering. 
The specific gravity, or relative weight, of metals is an 
important property, from the point of view of the 
worker in sheet metals, since all sheets of tin, lead, cop- 
per, and zinc are sold by pounds weight to the foot. A 

443 



444 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

few remarks by way of explanation of these several qual- 
ities, possessed in common by metals and alloys, therefore, 
preface the descriptions of the metals and alloys to fol- 
low. 

Metallic Luster. — This is, in fact, nothing more than 
the power of reflecting light rays. If a surface absorbs 
light rays largely, the reflection is broken, and the ap- 
pearance of the surface will not be bright, but dull. A 
broken or rough surface absorbs and scatters the light 
rays; a smooth surface, in the sense of being polished, 
reflects them. A porous substance cannot be polished. 
For a surface to be capable of taking a polish and becom- 
ing lustrous, it must be dense, close, or hard. Thus 
no amount of polishing would make the natural surface 
of wood lustrous like that of iron, and no amount of pol- 
ishing would make the surface of iron as lustrous as that 
of the harder steel. Metals not hard enough in them- 
selves to take a high polish can be rendered harder and 
more lustrous by the admixture of another metal. Tin 
and copper in various proportions form speculum metal 
and bell metal, each extremely hard and lustrous, and 
so of alloys of other metals. 

Tenacity is equivalent to strength, or the resistance 
offered by a body to forces tending to pull its particles 
asunder. It is measured in pounds or tons per square 
inch. That is, if the ultimate tensile strength of a bar 
of iron is 40,000 pounds per square inch, that means that 
a load of 40,000 pounds suspended at the end of a bar 1 
inch square, in cross section, would just suffice to tear 
the bar asunder. Tenacity, in this sense of breaking 
strength, is not of so much relative interest to the sheet- 
metal worker as it is to the engineer. Still, there are 
some matters cognate thereto which it is well to be aware 
of, such as the effect of the presence of impurities, the 
effect of temperature, and the effect of drawing out. In 
brief, the presence of foreign matters varies, in some cases 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 445 

and in certain proportions tending to increase, in others 
to diminution of strength. The effect of increase of tem- 
perature is to lessen the tenacity of metals, and replacing 
the fibrous condition by the crystalline; on the other 
hand, the tenacity is raised by moderate drawing out. 
Steel and iron possess the highest tenacity, while zinc, 
tin and lead possess the least. 

Ductility. — In proportion to the ductility of metals 
and alloys they are adapted for the purpose of wire- 
drawing; hence, steel, wrought iron, and copper, being 
highly ductile, are used for this purpose. Gold, silver, 
and platinum stand highest in the range of ductility, 
but their cost precludes their use for any but some 
special purposes. Tenacity is closely related to ductility, 
inasmuch as a weak metal will break before it can be re- 
duced to a fine wire. Zinc, tin, and lead, though soft, 
will not stand drawing down, because their tenacity 
is so low. Ductile metals become hardened and crystal- 
lized during the process of wire-drawing, until they 
reach the limit of the coherence of their particles. Then 
annealing becomes necessary. This is effected by heat- 
ing the metal, and allowing it to cool slowly, the effect 
of heat being to produce a natural rearrangement of the 
molecular particles. 

Malleability is not identical with ductility, though in 
some respects akin to it. The effect of hammering or 
rolling is to destroy the cohesion of the particles of metal, 
to restore which annealing is necessary. The softest 
metals are not the most malleable, neither are the most 
tenacious metals the most readily rolled and hammered. 
Lead and tin are soft, iroli and steel are strong, or tena- 
cious, but neither are malleable, as are gold, silver, and 
copper. Copper is the only really malleable substance 
used by sheet-metal workers, and that can be hammered 
into almost any form. Sheet iron and steel can be bent 
and rolled, but cannot be raised under the hammer or 



*46 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

in dies to anything like the same extent as copper. The 
malleability of thick metals is generally increased by heat, 
that of thin metals is not practically affected by it. 

The malleability of metal lies at the basis of the forma- 
tion of work in sheet metal. There is an essential differ- 
ence between the operations of the boilermaker and those 
of the sheet-metal worker. The materials are largely the 
same — steel, wrought iron, and copper — but the difference 
in thickness renders the methods of working different. 
The first-named class of artisans do much of their work 
by the aid of heat; the second, in the cold. The differ- 
ence is due to the relative thicknesses of the plates used 
by the first, and of the sheets used by the second. A 
thick plate cannot be bent to a quick curvature unless 
it is heated; a thin sheet can be bent, or hammered, 01 
stamped in the cold to almost any outline. The reason 
of this is readily apparent on a little consideration. 

Take a plate of thick metal, a sheet of thin metal, and 
a sheet of rubber, and note the effect of bending in each 
case. The thick plate can only be bent by the applica- 
tion of much force, assisted, if the curvature be quick, 
by heat; the thin steel can be bent most readily to the 
same curvature, the rubber also with extreme ease. In 
each case the effect of bending is to extend the outer 
layers, and compress the inner layers. The layers in the 
center of the plate, or sheet, are neither extended nor 
compressed, and this central plane of bending is called the 
neutral axis. The difference in bending thick and thin 
metal plates is due to the fact that in the first the layers 
which are in compression and extension are at a consider- 
able distance from the neutral axis, while in thin plates 
these layers are practically coincident therewith ; so that 
in a thin plate there is no appreciable amount of com- 
pression or extension, hence the ease with which they can 
be bent. 

But if the metal in the plates were highly elastic and 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 447 

mobile, like rubber, then, even though thick, extension and 
compression would take place in thick plates as in thin. 
The effect of heating thick plates is to cause the molecules 
to move over one another, and to become rearranged per- 
manently, and this not necessarily in a state of high ex- 
tension or compression, such as would result if the plates 
had been bent cold, but in a safe and natural way, pro- 
vided the amount of bending does not exceed the limit 
which the nature of the material will permit it to sustain. 

The same kind of thing occurs in thin sheet metals 
which are subjected to severe rolling, hammering, or 
stamping. Some movement and rearrangement of the 
particles of metal takes place, and the greater the amount 
of curvature or distortion of form produced, the more 
severe will be the stresses produced in the substance of 
the material. If a flat plate is raised by hammering, or 
if it is deeply beaded or dished, or set out, it will be 
brought into so high a state of tension that it will prob- 
ably crack, unless heating is resorted to for the purpose 
of rearranging the particles of metal. It is therefore 
obvious that the result of hammering, rolling, and stamp- 
ing is to cause the particles of metal to glide over one an- 
other, extending some parts and compressing others, with 
the frequent coincidence also of thinning down some of 
the portions which have been subjected to the most severe 
treatment.- If, therefore, the metals did not possess this 
property of malleability and that of ductility, but were 
such that their particles could not be made to glide one 
over the other, no irregular metallic forms could be pro- 
duced by hammering or stamping, but casting would be 
the only method available for obtaining these forms. 

Conductivity of heat is the property which renders the 
metals so valuable for heating purposes. The conducting 
power of metals varies, but it so happens that copper, 
which is the best conductor among the metals in com- 
mon use, is also the most malleable. Wrought iron is 



448 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

also an excellent conductor. The thinner the sheets, the 
more rapidly is heat transmitted through them. And, 
moreover, heat is transmitted so quickly through thin 
malleable sheets that there is no risk of fracture occurring, 
due to unequal contraction, as there is in many metallic 
substances. 

Fusibility. — The melting of steel, copper, and brass 
does not concern the worker in sheet metal, but the rela- 
tive fusibilities of the numerous brass, lead, and tin 
solders are matters of much practical importance to him. 
These all melt at comparatively low temperatures, and it 
is essential to know at what temperatures certain solders 
melt, in order to employ on any given job a solder, the 
melting point of which is well below that of the material 
which has to be united. Coke or charcoal fires, jets of 
gas, and copper bits are used to fuse the various solders 
employed. 

Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity of a metal is 
estimated relatively to that of a given bulk of pure water 
at a temperature of 62 degrees Fahrenheit. Beyond the 
commercial classification of sheets by weight, the relative 
weights of metals do not concern the sheet-metal worker 
much. 

PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS 

The manner in which the physical properties of the 
alloys is affected by small variations in the proportions 
of their constituents is often remarkable. Malleability, 
ductility, fusing points, even appearances, are often radi- 
cally modified. Some metals are more readily influenced 
in this way than others. Among familiar examples may 
be noted the effect which very minute percentages of car- 
bon, phosphorus, and silicon exercise on steel. 

Taking very common examples, it is remarkable that 
the union of two soft and malleable metals, as copper and 
tin, results in alloys ranging from the tough yellow gun 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 449 

metal to the brittle bell and speculum metals of silvery 
whiteness. So, too, copper alloyed with the very brittle 
and crystalline zinc forms the soft yellow brass, which is 
bent and cut with so much ease. Or, copper with lead 
forms an alloy so soft as to be hardly workable. Again, 
tin and lead alloyed together fuse at a temperature lower 
than that of either of the constituents — a fact which ren- 
ders them valuable as solders. And by adopting different 
proportions, various fusing points higher and lower are 
obtained, suitable for soldering different qualities of 
metal or alloy. 

Copper Alloys. — Copper is not only highly valuable in 
the pure state, but its value is perhaps even greater when 
alloyed in various proportions with tin, lead, zinc, or other 
metals. It is only necessary to instance gun metal, brass, 
bell metal, and the solders. The subject of alloys is one 
of such great interest and value that volumes might be 
devoted to them. But, strictly speaking, the subject is 
of greater interest to the founder than to the sheet-metal 
worker. Still, there is very much of interest in it to the 
latter, since all brass sheets and wires are alloys. All 
tinning of copper vessels is effected by a union of the 
surfaces of dissimilar metals. The difference in qualities 
of sheets and wires depends mainly on the proportions 
in which certain elements occur. All solders, whether 
hard or soft, are alloys. So that for these and other rea- 
sons a knowledge of the principles which underlie the 
union of dissimilar metals to form alloys is desirable. 

Whether alloys are true chemical compounds has been 
doubted. At least, they are not recognized as such in 
science. The reason is, that there is no fixed and definite 
proportion in which, and in which alone, combination of 
the metallic elements occurs. In a true chemical com- 
pound such is the case. They invariably combine in defi- 
nite proportions known as their combining weights, or 
in multiples of those combining weights. But true alloys 



450 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

are formed apart from any such definite combinations, 
so that one or other of the elements in one alloy shall 
be in excess by comparison with another alloy of the same 
metals. It seems, however, as though true chemical com- 
bination must take place, but that the compound is me- 
chanically associated with an excess of one or more of the 
elements. The reason for assuming the existence of a 
true compound is, that an alloy usually possesses physi- 
cal characteristics very different from those possessed by 
its separate elements — a feature in which it closely re- 
sembles most true chemical compounds. The strength, 
tenacity, hardness, and fusing points of alloys are gener- 
ally higher than those of their constituent elements, in 
some cases very much higher — effects which do not seem 
possible by a mere mechanical mixture of elements. 

Copper is alloyed with tin, lead and zinc in various 
proportions. Alloyed with tin alone it forms the gun 
metals, bronzes, bell metals, and speculum metal. When 
alloyed with zinc only it forms various brasses and spelter 
solders. Alloyed with lead only, it forms the very com- 
mon pot metals. Alloyed with tin, zinc, and lead, it forms 
various gun metals and bronzes. 

Alloys of copper with zinc alone are used chiefly to 
form spelter solder and brass. Copper and zinc mix in 
all proportions, but exact proportions are difficult to de- 
termine, because zinc volatilizes readily. The fusibility 
of copper-zinc alloys increases with the proportion of zinc, 
The color ranges, with the successive additions of zinc, 
from the red of copper to silvery white, and the malle- 
ability decreases until a crystalline character prevails. 

An alloy of about 1 part of zinc to 16 parts of coppei 
is used for jewelry, one of 3 to 4 parts of zinc to 16 parts 
of copper for sundry alloys once known as pinchbeck 
about 6 to 8 parts of zinc to 16 parts of copper forn] 
common brass, the latter being slightly more fusible thai 
the former. Equal parts of zinc and copper form sofl 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 451 

spelter solder; or 12 or 14 parts of zinc to 16 parts of cop- 
per would probably be the ultimate proportions after 
volatilization. 

Copper and tin also mix in all proportions. Successive 
additions of tin increase the fusibility of the alloy, the 
malleablity diminishes, and the color gradually changes 
from red to white. 

Copper-tin or gun metal alloys range from about 1 
part of tin to 16 parts of copper in the softest, to 2 or 
2y 2 parts of tin to 16 parts of copper in the hardest. 
Beyond the last proportion, up to 5 parts of tin to 16 
parts of copper, range the bell metal alloys ; from 7*4 to 
81/4 parts of tin to 16 parts of copper form speculum 
metal. 

The alloys of copper with lead alone are used in the 
cheap pot metals. The fusibility is increased with suc- 
cessive additions of lead, the malleability is soon lost, and 
the red color of copper gives place to a leaden hue. About 
6 parts of lead to 16 parts of copper is the limit at which 
a true alloy can be formed. With an increase in the pro- 
portion of lead, the latter separates in cooling. 

Alloys of copper with zinc, tin, and lead are largely 
used under the names of brasses, bronzes, gun metals, 
and pot metal. There is practically no limit to the range 
of these alloys. 

Generally, these alloys are not proportioned separately, 
but the copper is added to a brass alloy. In many mix- 
tures lead is not used at all, but copper, tin, and zinc 
only. Antimony is also sometimes used. A little iron 
added to yellow brass hardens it. Lead, on the contrary, 
makes it more malleable. Zinc added to a pure mixture 
of copper and tin makes it mix better, and increases the 
malleability. Pot metal is improved by the addition of a 
little tin, and also of antimony. 



452 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

THE COMMON METALS 

Aluminum. — This metal, when of 98.5 per cent purity, 
is bright white in color, somewhat resembling silver, 
though its appearance depends much on the temperature 
at which it has been worked. It is capable of taking a 
high polish. Its fusing point is about 1,050° Fahrenheit, 
but this may be increased to 1,832° Fahrenheit if impuri- 
ties are present or if it is alloyed with another metal. 
Aluminum is only slightly elastic; it is, however, fairly 
malleable and ductile, but these latter properties are im- 
paired by the presence of its two chief impurities, silicate 
and iron. If of more than 99 per cent purity, it can be 
rolled into leaves l-40,000th part of an inch in thickness, 
in this respect being inferior only to gold. Aluminum 
has a tensile strength of 12,000 pounds to the square inch. 
When pure, it is non-corrosive and resists the oxidizing 
action of the atmosphere, but this advantage has to be 
partly sacrificed to obtain increased hardness and elas- 
ticity, by adding small quantities of copper, nickel, or 
zinc. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid and in most solu- 
tions of the alkalines, but is only slightly affected by 
dilute sulphuric acid, and not at all by nitric acid. The 
rolled or forged metal breaks with a fine silky fracture. 

Aluminum is not found in a metallic state, but when 
in combination with oxygen, various alkalies, fluorine, 
silicon, and acids, it is the base of many clays and soils. 
Frequent compounds of aluminum are felspar, mica, 
gneiss, and trachyte, while other aluminum compounds, 
classed as precious stones, are the ruby, sapphire, garnet, 
turquoise, lazulite, topaz, etc. The ores from which 
aluminum is commercially reduced are bauxite, cryolite, 
and corundum. 

The chemical method of producing aluminum has been 
superseded by the cheaper and more satisfactory electri- 
cal process. There are three electrical methods, the first 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 453 

depending on the heating effect of the electric current 
and producing aluminum alloys only, whereas by the two 
later methods aluminum salts are submitted to electrolytic 
action at a, high temperature, pure metal being- 
produced. 

The sheet-metal worker would do well to acquaint him- 
self thoroughly with the many peculiarities of aluminum, 
which is replacing other metals for ornamental sheet 
metal work and in the formation of culinary and other 
utensils, for which purpose its indifference to the action 
of most acids and to atmospheric conditions renders it 
especially suitable. 

The great disadvantage of aluminum is the difficulty 
encountered in forming reliable soldered joints. This is 
caused by the formation of an oxide on the surface of 
the heated metal, the oxide preventing the soft solder 
from alloying with the aluminum and producing a good 
joint. With care the difficulty can be surmounted by 
employing soldering alloys of an easily fusible nature 
and by melting them with a special copper bit. Good 
solders for the purpose are given by authorities as fol- 
lows : Tin 95 parts, and bismuth 5 parts. Tin 97, bis- 
muth 3. Aluminum 2.5, zinc 25.25, phosphorus .25, tin 
72. Aluminum, 10, tin 90. Cadmium 50, zinc 20, tin 30. 
The copper bit should be wedge-shape and bent roundly 
to a quarter circle. Its edge is then at right angles to 
the aluminum, and by lightly moving the bit backward 
and forward over the metal and the flowing solder the 
film of oxide can be removed. The coated surface, can 
then be soldered with an ordinary copper bit. 

Antimony. — This is a bluish white metal, very crystal- 
line and brittle, and so can easily be powdered. Its chief 
use is in the formation of serviceable alloys, such as white 
metal and pewter, to which it imparts brittleness. The 
melted metal rapidly oxidizes if exposed to the air, and 
if highly heated burns with a white flame, giving off fumes 



454 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

of antimony trioxide. Antimony is dissolved by hot 
hydrochloric acid, hot concentrated sulphuric acid, and 
aqua regia, and if treated with nitric acid forms a straw- 
colored powder known as antimonic acid. Commercial 
antimony contains impurities in the form of potassium, 
copper, iron, and lead. 

Antimony occurs native, but generally the metal is 
found in combination with others. The chief antimony 
ore is stibnite. The antimony is recovered from this ore by 
two distinct processes. By the first of these is separated 
the antimony sulphide, which in its turn is refined by the 
second process. In Germany, where much commercial 
antimony is produced, the ore is placed in covered pots 
having perforated bottoms, below which are receivers. 
Between the pots is the fire, the heat of which fuses the 
sulphide, which runs through the holes into the receivers. 
Crucibles heated in circular wind-furnaces are employed 
to refine the sulphide. The charge is 40 pounds of sul- 
phide and 20 pounds of scrap iron, and the product is 
antimony and iron sulphide, which is again melted, this 
time with sulphate of soda and some slag, a product of 
the next process. The resultant metal is melted with 
pearlash and slag, and cast into ingots. Antimony can 
also be produced by electro-deposition. 

Bismuth. — This metal is reddish white in color, and 
has a bright luster. It is very brittle and crystalline, 
volatilizes at a high temperature, and, burning, forms a 
crystalline scale — flowers of bismuth. The most impor- 
tant use of bismuth is in forming alloys, as its addition 
to any metal has the effect of considerably lowering the 
melting point of that metal. Bismuth may be alloyed 
with antimony, lead, or tin. Bismuth solders may be 
formed of : Tin 4 parts, lead 4 parts, bismuth 1 part. Tin 
3, lead 3, bismuth 1. Tin 2, lead 2, bismuth 1. Equal 
parts of tin, lead, and bismuth. Tin 2, lead 1, bismuth 
2. Tin 3, lead 5, bismuth 3. 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 455 

Bismuth is found in the metallic state in the form of 
bismuth-glance (bismuth and sulphur )j in combination 
with oxygen as an ochre, and in the ores of silver, lead, 
tin, copper, and cobalt. Furnaces for reducing bismuth 
each contain a number of inclined iron tubes, in which 
the ore is placed. A wood-fire is lighted, and the fused 
bismuth, together with some impurities, flows through 
apertures at the lower ends of the tubes into clay or 
iron pots heated by a fire underneath. The sulphur and 
arsenic contained in it are removed by again fusing the 
metal, this time accompanied by one-tenth its weight of 
nitre. 

Gold. — This metal has a very limited application in 
the art of the sheet metal worker, but merely on account 
of its comparative scarcity as a metal, and hence its ex- 
pensiveness. Were it not for this, its high malleability 
and ductility would cause it to be very extensively used 
in many of the industrial arts. So malleable is gold that 
it may be reduced to leaves only the 290,000th part of 
an inch in thickness. It is but very slightly affected by 
the atmosphere, and resists the action of all solvents with 
the exception of selenic, aqua regia, and aqueous chlorine. 
Gold is found in a metallic state in the form of grains in 
sand and it is then often in combination with silver, cop- 
per, platinum, or iron. Veins of gold quartz occur, and 
occasionally the metal is found native in lumps, termed 
nuggets. The ores of galena, copper pyrites, and iron 
sometimes contain traces of gold. 

Tin. — This metal has nearly the lustrous whiteness of 
silver, is highly malleable, harder than lead, but is not 
very tenacious. It oxidizes only on being heated, when 
it forms stannic oxide. Tin can be decomposed by many 
acids, and, as has already been shown, easily alloys with 
most metals. Tin plate as used by the sheet-metal worker 
is not solid tin, but steel plate thinly coated with tin by 
a special process. Many of the more important alloys 



456 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

have tin as their principal constituent. Some of these 
alloys are solders. 

Tin occurs in the form of sulphuret and oxide, but 
more generally in the form of ore, known as tin stone. 
This is smelted either in blast or reverberatory furnaces. 
In the latter case the treatment is in two stages, one being 
the actual extraction of the metal and the other the refin- 
ing. The roasted ore is washed to remove the sulphates, 
and is then placed in a furnace having an inclined bed 
and lined with about 8 inches of fireclay, Previous to 
placing in the furnace, the ore is mixed with anthracite 
coal and a small quantity of lime and fluor-spar. At the 
end of five hours more anthracite coal is thrown into the 
furnace, and in about an hour after that the molten metal 
can be run off. The remaining slag is an iron silicate 
which contains some oxides. 

To refine the pig tin, it is placed in a reverberatory 
furnace and gradually heated to about 450° Fahrenheit. 
At this temperature the tin melts, and is drawn off into 
iron pots. The mass left in the furnace contains for the 
most part iron. On again melting the tin and stirring it 
with a pole of green wood, it is caused to boil by the escape 
of gases, and by this means the impurities, such as iron 
and arsenic, are brought to the surface, from which they 
are skimmed. 

Grain tin is made by allowing the molten metal to fall 
from a height on to a hard cold surface. To produce 
what is known as common tin, the metal passes at once to 
the molds. Refined tin is the result of using better ores 
and lengthening the poling process. The purest meta] 
in the mold is the upper portion, the middle portion is 
the common, and the bottom portion is too impure for 
use at all, and requires another fusing and poling. The 
ingots are known as block tin. 

Iron and Steel. — Iron in a state of purity is compara- 
tively little known, but the ores of it are various and 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 457 

abundant. In its commercial forms, as plate or sheet, bar, 
and cast iron, it is universally known. As sheet, it can 
be cut into patterns and bent into desired forms ; as bar, 
it can be made hot and wrought, that is, shaped by means 
of the hammer, and when molten it can be run or cast 
into all sorts of shapes. But cast iron is brittle, crystal- 
line in fracture, and not workable by the hammer. 

In sheet and bar form, wrought iron is malleable, 
mostly fibrous in fracture, and capable of being welded. 
The presence of impurities in bar iron, that is, the pres- 
ence of substances not wanted in it at the time being, seri- 
ously affects its malleability. Thus the presence of phos- 
phorus, or tin, renders it brittle when cold, and the pres- 
ence of sulphur makes it unworkable when hot. Iron 
quickly rusts if exposed to damp air, as in the case of iron 
exposed to all weathers, or to air and water, as with 
vessels in which barely sufficient water is left to cover the 
bottoms, the rusting being then much more rapid than 
when the vessels are kept full. 

When iron is heated to redness and above, scale rapidly 
forms and interferes greatly with welding. 

The effects of the presence of foreign substances in 
iron as impurities has been alluded to, but the presence 
in it of carbon has not been spoken of. This is a sub- 
stance which in its crystalline form is known as the dia- 
mond, and in its uncrystalline form as charcoal. The 
presence of carbon in iron destroys its malleability, but 
at the same time gives to it properties so remarkable and 
useful to mankind that to say, as a defect, of a piece of 
iron with carbon in it, that it is not malleable, is sim- 
ply equivalent to saying that a piece of brass is not a 
piece of copper. Quite the reverse of being matter in 
the wrong place, carbon in iron furnishes a compound 
so valuable on its own account that, if there were other 
substances not metals, the compounding of which with 
a metal gave products at all resembling those of iron and 



458 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

carbon, all such compounds would form a class of their 
own. The iron and carbon compound, however, stands 
alone. 

Iron is alloyed with carbon in proportions varying from 
say y% to 5 percent. "When in the proportion of from 2 
percent upward, the compound is cast iron, that is, iron 
suitable for casting purposes. In other proportions it 
is known as steel. In cast iron the metallic appearance 
is somewhat modified, in steel it is maintained. Origi- 
nally steel was made by the addition of carbon to manu- 
factured iron, and the word had then a fairly definite 
signification, meaning a material of a high tensile 
strength, that by being heated dull red and suddenly 
cooled could be made so hard that a file would not touch 
it, that is, would slide over it without marking it; and 
that could have that hardness modified or tempered by 
further application of heat. 

But with the introduction of the Bessemer process 
of steel making, and of the Siemens process of making 
steel direct from the ores, processes by which any desired 
percentage of carbon can be given, the signification of the 
word steel has become enlarged, and it now includes all 
alloys of iron and carbon between malleable iron and 
cast iron, except that the term mild steel is sometimes 
applied to those alloys that approach' in qualities to 
malleable iron. Steel plates are now produced equaling 
in toughness, and it is said even' excelling, the best char- 
coal plates, and as they are much cheaper, the old process 
is very generally giving way to the direct process. In 
practice, however, these plates are found to be more 
springy than good charcoal plates, and not so soft and 
easy to work. 

As iron is very liable to rust, surface protection is 
given to it by a coating of tin, or of an alloy of lead and 
tin, or of zinc. Plates coated with tin are termed tin 
plates; coated with lead and tin they have the name of 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 459 

terne plates; and if coated with zinc they are said to be 
galvanized, Terne plates are used for roofing, for lining 
packing cases, also for work to be japanned. 

Large iron sheets of various gauges, coated with tin 
and having the same appearance as tin plate, are called 
tinned iron. But the latter term is more generally ap- 
plied to sheets of iron which are coated with lead and tin, 
and are dull like terne plates. 

Iron coated with zinc is not so easily worked as when 
ungalvanized. In galvanizing, the zinc alloys with the 
surface of the iron, and this has a tendency to make the 
iron brittle. Galvanized iron is useful for water tanks 
and for roofing purposes, as the zinc coating prevents rust 
better than a tin coating. For roofing, however, terne 
plates are largely used, and, kept well painted, are found 
to be very durable. Owing to the ease with which zinc 
is attacked by acids, galvanized iron is not suitable for 
vessels exposed to acids or acid vapors. 

Copper. — This, the only red metal, is malleable, tena- 
cious, soft, ductile, sonorous, and an excellent conductor 
of heat. For this reason, and because of its durability, 
it is largely used for cooking utensils. It is found in 
numerous states of combination with other constituents, 
as well as native. Its most important ore is copper 
pyrites. Copper melts at a dull white heat and becomes 
then covered with black crust. It burns when at a bright 
white heat with a greenish flame. No attempt at explana- 
tion of its manufacture will here be made, as any but a 
lengthy description would simply lead to bewilder- 
ment. 

For the production of sheet copper it is first cast in the 
form of slabs, which are rolled, and then annealed and re- 
rolled, this annealing and re-rolling being repeated until 
the copper sheet is brought down to the desired thick- 
ness. In working ordinary sheet copper, it is hammered 
to stiffen it, and close the grain. Hard-rolled copper is, 



460 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

however, nowadays produced that does not require ham- 
mering. 

In the course of the manufacture of copper it under- 
goes a process termed poling, to get rid of impurities. 
We mention this because we shall find a similar process 
gone through in preparing solders. The poling of copper 
consists of plunging the end of a pole of green wood, 
preferably birch, beneath the surf ace of the molten metal, 
and stirring the mass with it. Violent ebullition takes 
place, large quantities of gases are liberated, and the 
copper is thoroughly agitated. It is doubtful if this pol- 
ing process is fully understood, for, though it is quite 
obvious that there may be insufficient poling, it is not 
easy to explain overpoling. But overpoling, as a fact, is 
fully recognized in the manufacture of copper, and the 
metal is brittle, both if the poling is too long continued 
or not long enough. If duly poled, the cast slab when set 
displays a comparatively level surface. If underpoled, 
a longitudinal furrow forms on the surf ace of the slab 
as it cools. If overpoled, instead of a furrow, the surface 
exhibits a longitudinal ridge. Copper, duly poled, is 
known as "best selected. " 

Zinc. — Of this metal, known also very commonly as 
spelter, calamine is a very abundant ore. Another abun- 
dant ore is blende. Zinc is extracted from its ores by a 
process of distillation. The metal volatilizes at a bright 
red heat, and the vapor, passing into tubes, condenses, 
and is collected from the tubes in powder and in solid 
condition. If required pure, further process is necessary. 
Zinc is hardened by rolling, and requires to be annealed 
at a low temperature to restore its malleability. Until the 
discovery of the malleability of zinc when a little hotter 
than boiling water, it was only used to alloy copper, and 
sheet zinc was unknown. Zinc expands l/340th by heat- 
ing from the freezing to the boiling point of water. The 
zinc of commerce dissolves readily in hydrochloric and 



METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS 461 

in sulphuric acid; pure zinc only slowly. If zinc is ex- 
posed to the air, a film of dull gray oxide forms on the 
surface, and it suffers afterwards little further change. 
Zinc alloys with copper and tin, but not with lead. It 
also alloys with iron, for which it is largely used as a 
coating, iron so coated being known as galvanized iron. 

Lead. — Another metal that is prepared in sheet is lead. 
This metal was known in the earliest ages of the world. 
It is soft, flexible, and has but little tenacity. One of its 
principal ores is galena. Being a soft metal, it is worked 
by the plumber into various shapes by means of special 
tools, which often saves the making of joints. As it is 
comparatively indestructible under ordinary conditions, 
it is largely used for roofing purposes and for water cis- 
terns. It is also used for the lining of cisterns for strong 
acids, in which case the joints are not soldered in the 
ordinary way with plumber 's solder, but made by a proc- 
ess termed autogenous soldering or lead burning. Lead 
prepared in sheet by casting is known as cast lead, but 
when prepared by the more modern method of casting a 
small slab of the metal and then rolling it to any desired 
thickness, is called milled lead. 

Alloys. — An alloy is a compound of two or more metals. 
Alloys retain the metallic appearance, and while closely 
approximating in properties to the metals compounded, 
often possess in addition valuable properties which do not 
exist in either of the constituent metals forming the alloy. 
Thus, an alloy of copper and zinc has a metallic appear- 
ance and working properties somewhat similar to those 
of the individual metals it is made up of, and so with an 
alloy of gold, or silver, and a small percentage of copper. 
But the latter alloys have the further property of hard- 
ness, making them suitable for coinage, for which gold, or 
silver, unalloyed, is too soft. Like this addition of copper 
to gold or silver is the addition of antimony to lead and to 
tin, by which alloys are obtained harder though more brit- 



462 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

tie than either lead or tin by itself. The alloy of lead 
and antimony is used for printer's type, for which lead 
alone is too soft. 



XIV 

PEACTICAL GEOMETEY AND MENSURATION 
DEFINITIONS OF PLANE FIGURES 

A line is length without breadth. 

The extremities of a line are points. 

A straight line is that which lies evenly between its 
extreme points. 

A plane surface is that in which, any two points being 
taken, the straight line between them lies wholly in that 
surface. 

The extremities of a surface are lines. 

A plane rectilineal angle is the inclination of two 
straight lines to one another in a plane, which meet to- 



Figure 1. Figure 2. 

gether, but are not in the same straight line, as in Fig- 
ure 1. 

When a straight line, standing on another straight line, 
makes the adjacent angles equal to one another, each of 
the angles is called a right angle and the straight line 
which stands on the other is called a perpendicular to it, 
as in Figure 2. 

463 



464 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Figure 3. 





Figure 4. 



Figure 5. 




Figure 6. 





Figure 7. 



Figure 8. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 465 

An obtuse angle is that which is greater than a right 
angle, as in Figure 3. 

An acute angle is that which is less than a right angle, 
as in Figure 1. 

A term or boundary is the extremity of anything. 

An equilateral triangle is that which has three equai 
sides, as in Figure 4. 

An isosceles triangle is that which has two sides equal, 
as in Figure 5. ._-_._. 

A scalene triangle is that which has three unequal sides, 
as in Figure 6. 

A right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle, 
as in Figure 7. 

An obtuse-angled triangle is that which has an obtuse 
angle, as in Figure 6. 

The hypothenuse in a right-angled triangle is the side 
opposite the right angle, as in Figure 7. 

A square is that which has all its sides equal and all 
its angles right-angles, as in Figure 8. 

A rectangle is that which has all its angles right angles, 
but only its opposite sides equal, as in Figure 9. 



Figure 9. Figure 10. 

A rhombus is that which has all its sides equal, but its 
angles are not right angles, as in Figure 10. 

A quadrilateral figure which has its opposite sides 
parallel is called a parallelogram, as in Figures 8, 9, and 
10. 



466 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

A line joining two opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 
called a diagonal. 

An ellipse is a plane figure bounded by one continuous 
curve described about two points, so that the sum of the 





Figure 11. Figure 12. 

distances from every point in the curve to the two foci 
may be always the same, as in Figure 11. 

PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE 

A circle contains a greater area than any other plane 
figure bounded by the same length of circumference or 
outline. 

A circle is a plane figure contained by one line and is 
such that all straight lines drawn from a point within the 
figure to the circumference are equal, and this point is 
called the center of the circle. 

A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through 
the center and terminated both ways by the circumfer- 
ence, as AC in Figure 12. 

A radius is a straight line drawn from the center to 
the circumference, as LM in Figure 12. 

A semicircle is the figure contained by a diameter and 
that part of circumference cut off by a diameter, as AHC 
in Figure 12. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 467 

A segment of a circle is the figure contained by a 
straight line and the circumference which it cuts off, 
as DHE in Figure 12. 

A sector of a circle is the figure contained by two 
straight lines drawn from the center and the circum- 
ference between them, as LMC in Figure 12. 

A chord is a straight line, shorter than the diameter, 
lying within the circle, and terminated at both ends by 
the circumference, as DE in Figure 12. 

An arc of a circle is any part of the circumference, as 
DHE in Figure 12. 

The versed sine is a perpendicular joining the middle 
of the chord and circumference, as GH in Figure 12. 

Circumference, — Multiply the diameter by 3.1416 ; 
the product is the circumference. 

Diameter. — Multiply the circumference by .31831 ; the 
product is the diameter ; or multiply the square root of 
the area by 1.12837 ; the product is the diameter. 

Area. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854 ; 
the product is the area. 

Side of the square. — Multiply the diameter by .8862; 
the product is the side of a square of equal area. 

Diameter of circle. — Multiply the side of a square by 
1.128; the product is the diameter of a circle of equal 
area. 

r 6 c >l 




To find the versed sine, chord of an arc, or radius when 
any two of the three factors are given. — Figure 13. 



468 



R= 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

C 2 +4V 2 



8V 
V=R 



C=2y(2R— V) 



Si 



4R 2 — C 2 



To /md tf/ie length of any line perpendicular to the 
chord of an arc, when the distance of the line from the 
l< c _ >, 




Figure 14. 

center of the chord, the radius of the arc, and the length 
of the versed sine are given. — Figure 14. 

C 2 +4V 2 



N=V (R 2 — X 2 ) — (R— H) 



R = 



8V 



C=2V(2R— V) 



V=R- 






4R 2 — C 2 



To find the diameter of a circle when the chord and 
versed sine of the arc are given. 

DG 2 +GH 2 



AO 



GH 




To find the length of any arc of a circle, when the chord 

of the whole arc and the chord of half the arc are given. 
— Figure 15. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 469 

Arc DHE=8DH— DE 



DEFINITIONS OF POLYGONS 

A polygon, if its sides are equal, is called a regular 
polygon ; if unequal, an irregular polygon, 
A pentagon is a five-sided figure. 
A hexagon is a six-sided figure — Figure 16. 
A heptagon is a seven-sided figure. 



Figure 16. Figure 17. 

An octagon is an eight-sided figure — Figure 17. 

A nonagon is a nine-sided figure. 

A decagon is a ten-sided figure. 

A undecagon is an eleven-sided figure. 

A duodecagon is a twelve-sided figure. 

DEFINITIONS OF SOLID FIGURES 

A solid has length, breadth, and thickness. The 
boundaries of a solid are surfaces. 

A solid angle is that which is made by two or more 
plane angles, which are not in the same plane, meeting 
at one point. 

A cube is a solid figure contained by six equal squares — 
Figure 18. 

A prism is a solid figure contained by plane figures of 



470 



SHEET METALWORKERS' MANUAL 



which two that are opposite are equal, similar, and par- 
allel to one another; the other sides are parallelograms 
— Figure 19. 

A pyramid is a solid figure contained by planes, one 
of which is the base, and the remainder are triangles, 




Figure 18. 



Figure 19. 





Figure 20. 



Figure 21. 



whose vertices meet in a point above the base, called the 
vertex or apex of the pyramid — Figure 20. 

A cylinder is a solid figure described by the revolution 
of a rectangle or parallelogram about one of its sides 
— Figure 21. 

The axis of a cylinder is the fixed straight line about 
which the parallelogram revolves. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



471 



The ends of a cylinder are the circles described by the 
two revolving sides of the parallelogram. 

A sphere is a solid figure described by the revolution 
of a semicircle about its diameter, which remains fixed — 
Figure 22. 

The axis of a sphere is the fixed straight line about 
which the semicircle revolves. 

The center of a sphere is the same as that of the semi- 
circle. 

The diameter of a sphere is any straight line which 
passes through the center and is terminated both ways by 
the surface of the sphere. 

A cone is a solid figure described by the revolution 
of a right-angled triangle about one of its sides contain- 





Figure 22. 



Figure 23. 



ing the right angle, which side remains fixed — Figure 23. 

The axis of a cone is that side of the triangle containing 
the right angle which remains fixed. 

The base of the cone is the circle described by that side 
of the triangle containing the right-angle which revolves. 

If a cone be cut obliquely so as to preserve the base 
entirely, the section is an ellipse. 

When a cone is cut by a plane parallel to one of the 
sloping sides, the section is a parabola; if cut at right 
angles to its base, a hyperbola. 



472 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



CONSTRUCTION OF ANGLES 

To bisect a given angle. — Let DA C be the given angle. 
With center A and any radius AE describe an arc cutting 
AC and AD at E and G. "With the same radius and cen- 
ters E and G, describe arcs intersecting at H, and join 
AH. The angle DAC is bisected— Figure 24. 





To construct an angle of 30°. — With radius AE and 
Avith center A and E, describe arcs intersecting at G. 
With the same radius and with centers E and G, describe 
arcs intersecting at D, and join AD. The angle DAC 
contains 30° — Figure 25. 





To construct an angle of 60°. — With radius AE, and 
with centers A and E, describe arcs intersecting at G, 
draw AD through G. The angle DAG contains 60° — Fig- 
ure 26. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



473 



To construct an angle of 90°.— With radius AE and 
centers A and E, describe arcs intersecting at F, draw EG 
through F, and make FO equal to FE. Join (LA, and 
with center A and radius AE make Afl" equal to AE, 
with the same radius and with centers E and H describe 
arcs intersecting at L, draw AD through L. The angle 
DAC is 45°— Figure 27. 

To construct an angle of 90°. — With radius AE and 
centers A and E, describe arcs intersecting at F, with 




xF 



^O 



jL 



A E* 

Figure 28. 



the same radius and center F describe the arc AGD, with: 
radius AE, lay off AG and GD and join DA. The angle 
Z>A(? is 90°— Figure 28. 



PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN GEOMETRY 

To bisect a straight line. — Figure 29. Let BC be the* 
straight line to be bisected. With any convenient radius 
greater than AB or AC describe arcs cutting each other 
at D and E. A line drawn through D and E will bisect 
or divide the line BC into two equal parts. 

To erect a perpendicular line at or near the end of a 
straight line. — Figure 30. With any convenient radius 
and at any distance from the line AC, describe an arc of 
a circle as ACE, cutting the line at A and C. Through. 



474 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the center B of the circle draw the line ABE, cutting the 
arc at p^int E. A line drawn from C to E will be the 
required perpendicular. 

To dwide a straight line into any number of equal 
porf ?.< -Figure 31. Let AB be the straight line to be 



CE 

Figure 29. 




Figure 



divided into a certain number of equal parts : From the 
points A and B, draw two parallel lines AD and BC, 
at any convenient angle with the line AB. Upon AD and 
BC set off one less than the number of equal parts re- 
quired, as A-l, 1-2, 2-D, etc. Join C-l, 2-2, 1-D. The 





line AB will then be divided into the required number 
of equal parts. 

To find the length of an arc of a circle. — Figure 32. 
Divide the chord AC of. the arc into four equal parts as 
shown. With the radius AD equal to one-fourth of the 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



475 



chord of the arc and with A as center describe the arc 
BE. Draw the line EG and twice its length will be the 
length of the arc AEG. 

To draw radial lines from the circumference of a cir- 
cle when the center is inaccessible. — Figure 33. Divide 




Figure 33. 




the circumference into any desired number of parts as 
AB, BC, CD, BE. Then with a radius greater than the 
length of one part, describe arcs cutting each other as 



476 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



A-2, C-2, B-3, B-3, etc., also B-l, D-5. Describe the end 
arcs A-l, E-5 with a radius equal to B-2. Lines joining 
A-l, B-2, C-3, D-4 and E-5 will all be radial. 

To inscribe any regular polygon in a circle. — Figure 
34. Divide the diameter AB of the circle into as many 
equal parts as the polygon is to have sides. With the 
points A and B as centers and radius AB, describe arcs 
cutting each other at C. Draw the line CE through the 




second point of division, of the diameter of AB, inter- 
secting the circumference of the circle D. A line drawn 
from B to D is one of the sides of the polygon. 

To cut a beam of the strongest shape from a circular 
section. — Figure 35. Divide any diameter CB of the 
circle into three equal parts, as CF, FE, and EB. At 
E and F erect perpendiculars EA and FD on opposite 
sides of the diameter CB. Join AB, BD, DC and CF. 
The rectangle ABCD will be the required shape of the 
beam. 

To divide any triangle into two parts of equal area. — 
Figure 36. Let ABC be the given triangle : Bisect one 
of its sides AB at D and describe the semicircle AEB, 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



477 



At D erect the perpendicular DE and with center B and 
radius BE describe the arc EF, which intersects the line 
AB at F. At F draw the line FG parallel to AC. This 
divides the triangle into two parts of equal area. 

To inscribe a circle of the greatest possible diameter 
in a given triangle. — Figure 37. Bisect the angles A 





Figure 37. 



and B, and draw the lines, AB, BD which intersect each 
other at D. From D draw the line CD perpendicular to 
AB. Then CD will be the radius of the required circle 
CEF. 

To construct a square equal in area to a given circle. — 
Figure 38. Let ABCD be the given circle: Draw the 
diameters AB and CD at right angles to each other, then 
bisect the half diameter or radius DB at E and draw the 
line FL, parallel to BA. At the points C and F erect 
the perpendiculars CH and FG, equal in length to CF. 
Join HG. Then CFGH is the required square. The 
dotted line FL is equal to one-fourth the circle ACBD. 



478 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



To construct a rectangle of the greatest possible area 
in a given triangle. — Figure 39. Let ABC be the given 
triangle : Bisect the sides AB and BC at G and D. Draw 
the line GD and from the points G and D, draw the lines 





Figure 38. 



Q B 

Figure 39. 



GF and DE perpendicular to GD. Then EFGD is the 
required rectangle. 

To construct a rectangle equal in area to a given tri- 
angle. — Figure 40. Let ABC be the given triangle : Bi- 

E C_F 




sect the base AB of the triangle at D and erect the per- 
pendiculars DE and BF at D and B. Through C draw 
the line EOF intersecting the perpendiculars DE and BF 
at E and F. Then BDEF is the required rectangle. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



47& 



To construct a triangle equal in area to a given par- 
allelogram. — Figure 41. Let ABCD be the given par- 
allelogram : Produce the line AB at B and make BE 




equal to AB. Joint the points A and C and ACE will 
be the triangle required. 

To inscribe a square within a given circle. — Figure 42V 
Let ADBC be the given circle : Draw the diameters AB 
and CD at right angles to each other. Join AD, DB, BC> 
and CA. Then ACBD is the inscribed square. 




(_ > 



Figure 42. 



Figure 43. 



Hi 



To describe a square without a given circle. — Figure 
43. Draw the diameters AB and CD at right angles to 
each other. Through A and B draw the lines EF and 
GH, parallel to CD, also draw the lines EG and FH 



480 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



through the points C and D and parallel to AB. This 
.completes the required square EFGH. 

To construct an octagon in a given square. — Figure 
44. Let ABCD be the given square : Draw the diagonal 
lines AC and BD, which intersect each other at the point 
O. With a radius equal to AO or OC, describe the arcs 




K M 

Figure 44. 




Figure 45. 



EF, GH, IK and LM. Connect the points EK, LG, FI 
and HM . Then GFIHMKEL is the required octagon. 

To construct a circle equal in area to two given circles. 
— Figure 45. Let AB and AC equal the diameters of the 
given circles : Erect AC at A and at right angles to AB. 
Connect B and C, then bisect the line BC at D and de- 
scribe the circle ACB, which is the circle required and 
is equal in area to the two given circles. 

To describe an octagon about a given circle. — Figure 
46. Let ACBD be the given circle : Draw the diameters 
AB and CD at right angles to each other. With any con- 
venient radius and centers A, C, B and D describe arcs 
intersecting each other at E, H, F and G. Join EF and 
GH, which form two additional diameters. At the points 
A, B, C, D, draw the lines KL, PR, MN and ST, parallel 
with the diameters CD and AB respectively. At the 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



4S1 



points of intersection of the circumference of the circle 
by the lines EF and GH, draw the lines KP, BM, NT 
and 8L parallel with the lines EF and H G respectively. 
Then PBMNTSLK is the required octagon. 




H A 

Figure 47. 



To draw a straight line equal in length to a given 
portion of the circumference of a circle. — Figure 47. Let 
ACBD be the given circle : Draw the diameters AB and 



2 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

CD at right angles with each other. Divide the radius 
BB into four equal parts. Produce the diameter AB at 
B, and make BE equal to three of the four parts of BB. 
At A draw the line AF parallel to CD, and then draw the 
line ECF. The line AF is equal to one-fourth of the cir- 
cumference of the circle ACBD. If lines be drawn 
from E through points in the circumference of the cir- 
cle as 1 and 2, meeting the line AF at G and H, then C-l, 
1-2 and 2-A will equal FG, GH and HA respectively. 




Figure 49. 



To construct a square equal in area to two given 
squares.— Figure 48. Let AC and AD be the length of 
the sides of the given squares: Make AD perpendicu- 
lar to AC and connect DC. Then DC is one of the sides 
of the square DC EG which is equal to the two given 
squares. 

To inscribe a hexagon in a given circle. — Figure 49. 
Draw a diameter of the circle as AB : With centers A 
and B and radius AC or BC, describe arcs cutting the cir- 
cumference of the circle at D, E, F and G. Join EF, FB, 
BG, GD, DA and AE. This gives the required hexagon. 

To describe a cycloid, the diameter of the generating 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



483 



circle being given. — Figure 50. Let BD be the generat- 
ing circle : Draw the line ABC equal in length to the cir- 
cumference of the generating circle. Divide the circum- 
ference of the generating circle into 12 parts as shown. 
Draw lines from the points of division 1, 2, 3, etc., of the 




circumference of the generating circle, parallel to the 
line ABC and on both sides of the circle. Lay off one 
division of the generating circle on the lines 5 and 7, 
two divisions on the lines d and 8, three divisions on the 
lines 3 and 9, four divisions on the lines 2 and 10, and 
five divisions on the lines 1 and 11. A line traced through 



484 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

the points thus obtained will be the cycloid curve re- 
quired. 

To develop a spiral with uniform spacing .—Figure 51. 
Divide the line BE into as many equal parts as there are 
required turns in the spiral. Then subdivide one of these 
spaces into four equal parts. Produce the line BE to 4, 
making the extension E-4 equal to two of the subdivisions. 
At 1 draw the line 1-D ; lay off 1-2 equal to one of the sub- 
divisions. At 2 draw 2- A perpendicular to 1-D and at 
3 in 2-A draw 3-C, etc. With center 1 and radius 1-B 
describe the arc BD; with center 2 and radius 2-D de- 
scribe the arc DA; with center 3 and radius 3-A> etc. 
until the spiral is completed. If carefully laid out, the 
spiral should terminate at E, as shown in the drawing. 

MENSURATION 

Mensuration is that branch of arithmetic which is 
used in ascertaining the extent and solidity or capacity 
of bodies capable of being measured. 

Definitions of Arithmetical Signs. — 

= Sign of Equality, as 4+8=12. 

-|- Sign of Addition, as 6+6=12, the Sum. 

— Sign of Subtraction, as 6 — 3=3, the Eemainder. 

X Sign of Multiplication, as 8X4=32, the Product. 

-f- Sign of Division, as 24-f-6=4 24 / 6 =4. 

V Sign of Square Root, signifies evolution or ex- 
traction of square root. 

2 Sign of to be squared, thus 8 2 =8X8=64. 

3 Sign of to be cubed, thus 3 3 =3X3X3=27. 

MENSURATION OF PLANE SURFACES 

To find the area of a circle. — Figure 52. Multiply the 
square of the diameter by .7854. 

To find the circumference of a circle.— Multiply the 
diameter by 3.1416. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 485 

Circle: Area= .7854D 2 . 
Circ.=3.1416D. 
To find the area of a semicircle. — Figure 52. Multiply 
the square of the diameter by .3927. 



d 



To find the circumference of a semicircle. — Multiply 
the diameter by 1.5708. 

Semicircle: Area= .3927D 2 . 
Circ.=1.5708D. 

To find the area of an annular ring.— Figure 53. From 
the area of the outer circle subtract the area of the inner 
circle, the result will be the area of the annular ring. 



To find the outer circumference of an annular ring. 
-Multiply the outer diameter by 3.1416. 



486 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



To find the inner circumference of an annular ring. — 
Multiply the inner diameter by 3.1416. 

Annular ring: Area = .7854 (D 2 — H 2 ). 
Outer circ. = 3.1416 D. 
Inner circ. == 3.1416 H. 

To find the area of a fiat-oval. — Figure 54. Multiply 
the length by the width and subtract .214 times the 
square of the width from the result. 




To find the circumference of a flat-oval. — The circum- 
ference of a flat-oval is equal to twice its length plus 1.142 
times its width. 

Flat-oval: Area = D (H — 0.214D). 
Circ. = 2 (H + 0.571D). 



/€ITT 


^^$0&h 


J|||A i 


^'0:{0:^^{ 


te-#srti l 




r 

k- — D >i_ 


- 
k D M 


Figure 55. 


Figure 56. 



To find the area of a parabola. — Figure 55. Multiply 
the base by the height and by .667. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



487 



Parabola: Area=.667 (D X H). 

To find the area of a square. — Figure 56. Multiply the 
length by the width, or, in other words, the area is equal 
to square of the sides. 

To find the circumference of a square. — The circum- 
ference of a square is equal to the sum of the lengths of 
the sides. 

Square : Area = D 2 . 
Circ. = 4D. 



&£$& 


t 

1 

X 
1 
1 

\ 






JIB 


w t 

w '< 

7 £ 

' 1 

* 


k--D-*> 

Figure « 


1 

57. 


U D -*4 

Figure 58. 






1 1 












MSillk = 






1 

k 


D ^\ 

Figure 59. 





To find the area of a rectangle. — Figure 57. Multiply 
the length by the width ; the result is the area of the rec- 
tangle. 

To find the circumference of a rectangle. — The circum- 
ference of a rectangle is equal to twice the sum of the 
length and width. 

Rectangle: Area = D X H. 

Circ. = 2 (D + H). 



488 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

To find the area of a parallelogram. — Figure 58. Mul- 
tiply the base by the perpendicular height. 

Parallelogram: Area = D X H. 

To find the area of a trapezoid. — Figure 59. Multiply 
lialf the sum of the two parallel sides by the perpendicu- 
lar distance between the sides. 

Trapezoid: Area= 

To find the area of an equilateral triangle. — Figure 60. 
The area of an equilateral triangle is equal to the square 
of one side multiplied by .433. 

To find the circumference of an equilateral triangle. — 
The circumference of an equilateral triangle is equal to 
the sum of the length of the sides. 

Equilaterial triangle : Area=0.433D 2 . 

Circ. = 3D. 

To find the area of a right-angled or of an isosceles tri- 
angle. — Figure 61. Multiply the base by half the perpen- 
dicular height. 

To find the circumference of any regular polygon. — 
Figure 62. The circumference of any polygon is equal to 
the sum of the length of the sides. 

No. ofsidesXDXP 
Polygon : Area == ~ — ! 

Circ. = No. of sides X D. 
D = Length of one side. 
P = Perpendicular distance from the cen- 
ter to one side. 

MENSURATION OF VOLUME AND SURFACE OF SOLIDS 

To find the cubic contents of a sphere. — Figure 63, 
Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236. 

To find the superficial area of a sphere. — Multiply the 
square of the diameter by 3.1416. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



489 




n 

i 

i 

i 

r 
i 
i 




U--D >1 k D 

Figure 61. 



>l 




Figure 62. 




|< D -*J 

Figure 63. 




Figure 64. 



490 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Sphere: Cubic contents = .5236D 3 . 
Superficial area — 3.1416D 2 . 

The area of the surface of a sphere is equal to the area 
of the surface of a cylinder, the diameter and the height 
of which are each equal to the diameter of the sphere. 
Also, the area of the surface of a sphere is equal to four 
times the area of its diameter. 

The latter definition is easily remembered, and is use- 
ful in calculating the areas of the hemispheres, because 
the area of the sheet or disc of metal required for rais- 
ing a hemisphere must be equal in area to the combined 
areas of two discs, each equal to the diameter of the hemi- 
sphere. 

To find the cubic contents of a hemisphere.— Figure 64. 
Multiply the cube of the diameter by .2618. 

To find the superficial area of a hemisphere. 

Hemisphere: Cubic contents = .2618D 3 . 
Superficial area = 2.3562D 2 . 

To find the cubic contents of a cylindrical ring. — Fig- 
ure 65. To the cross-sectional diameter of the ring add 




the inner diameter of the ring, multiply the sum by the 
square of the cross-sectional diameter of the ring and by 
2.4674. The product is the cubic contents. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



491 



To find the superficial area of a cylindrical ring. — To 
the cross-sectional diameter of the ring add the inner 
diameter of the ring. Multiply the sum by the cross- 
sectional diameter of the ring and by 9.8696 ; the product 
is the superficial area. 

Cylindrical ring : Cubic contents = 2.4674T 2 (T+H) 
Superficial area = 9.8696T (T+H) 
D= (H + 2T). 

To find the cubic contents of a cylinder. — Figure 66. 
Multiply the area of one end by the length of the cylin- 




r\ 




U D aJ 

Figure 67. 



der. The product will be the cubic contents of the cyl- 
inder. 

To find the superficial area of a cylinder. — Multiply 
the circumference of one end by the length of the cylin- 
der and add to the product the area of both ends. 

Cylinder: Cubic contents = .7854 (D + H). 

Superficial area= 1.5708D (2H + D). , 

To find the cubic contents of a cone. — Figure 67. Mul- 
tiply the square of the base by the perpendicular height 
and" by .2618. 

To find the superficial area of a cone. — Multiply the 



492 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



circumference of the base by one-half the slant height 
and add to the product the area of the base. 

Cone: Cubic contents = .2618 (D 2 X H): 
Superficial area = .7854D (_2S + D) . 

To find the cubic contents of the frustum of a cone. — 
Figure 68. To the sum of the areas of the two ends of the 
frustum, add the square root of the product of the diame- 
ters of the two ends ; this result multiplied by one-third 
of the perpendicular height of the frustum will give the 
cubic contents. 



h~E- 




U- D- -J 



U- — 



Figure 69. 



Figure 68. 

To find the superficial area of the surface of the frus- 
tum of a cone. — Multiply the sum of the diameters of 
the ends by 3.1416 and by half the slant height. Add to 
the result the area of both ends and the sum of the two 
will be superficial area. 

Frustum of cone: 



Cubic contents : 



H (.2618 (E 2 + D 2 ) VEXD) 



Superficial area = 3.1416S (® + E ^) + .7854 (E 2 + D 2 ) 



S 



*& 



E 



+ H 2 



To find the contents of a cube. — Figure 69. The con- 
tents are equal to the cube of one of its sides. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 493 

To find the superficial area of a cube. — The superficial 
area of a cube is equal to six times the square of one of its 
sides. 

Cube: Cubic contents = D 3 . 
Superficial area = 6D 2 . 

To find the cubic contents of a rectangular solid. — 
Figure 70. Multiplying together the length, width, and 



— T 




O -^1 ^ »<— — D >l 

Figure 70. Figure 71. 

height will give the cubic contents of the rectangular 
solid. 

To find the superficial area of a rectangular solid. — 
Multiply the width by the sum of the height and length 
and add to it the product of the height multiplied by 
the length. Twice this sum is the superficial area of the 
rectangular solid. 

Rectangular solid: 

Cubic contents = D X H X L 
Superficial area = 2 (D (H + L) +HL) 

To find the cubic contents of a pyramid. — Figure 71. 
Multiply the area of the base by one-third the perpen- 
dicular height and the product will be the cubic contents 
of the pyramid. 

Tb find the superficial area of a pyramid. — Multiply 
the circumference of the base by half the slant height and 



494 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



to this add the area of the base. The sum will be the 
superficial area. 

D 2 XH 



Pyramid: Cubic contents = q 






4D + S 



+ 4D 



Superficial area ; 

MENSURATION OF TRIANGLES 

To find the base of a right-angled triangle when the 
perpendicular and the hypotenuse are given. — Figure 
72. Subtract the square of the perpendicular from the 
square of the hypotenuse. The square root of the differ- 
ence is equal to the length of the base. 



Base = V Hypotenuse 2 — Perpendicular 2 or B = V C 2 — H 2 

To find the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle 
when the base and hypotenuse are #ii;ew.— Subtract the 




square of the base from the square of the hypothenuse. 
The square root of the difference is equal to the length 
of the perpendicular. 



Perpendicular — V Hypotenuse 2 — Base 2 or H = V C 2 — B 2 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY AND MENSURATION 



495 



To find the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle 
when the base and the perpendicular are given. — The 
square root of the sum of the squares of the base and 
the perpendicular is equal to the length of the hypothe- 
nuse. 

Hypotenuse = V Base 2 + Perpendicular 2 
C = V B 2 + H 2 

To find the perpendicular height of any oblique angled 
triangle. — Figure 73. From half the sum of the three 




sides of the triangle, subtract each side severally. Mul- 
tiply the half sum and the three remainders together 
and twice the square root of the result, divided by the 
base of the triangle, will be the height of the perpen- 
dicular. 



D: 



2V S (S — A) (S — B) (S — C) 



S = 



C 
Sum of sides 



To find the area of any oblique angled triangle when 
only the three sides are given. — From half the sum 01 
the three sides, subtract each side severally. Multiply 



496 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



the half sum and the three remainders together and the 
square root of the product is equal to the area required. 



Area=VS(S — A) (S — B) (S — C) 

To find the height of the perpendicular and the two 
sides of any triangle inscribed in a semicircle, when the 




base of the triangle and the location of the perpendicular 
are given. — Figure 74. 



A = ^ 
A B 



B=^ C=VA+B 



D = VA(A + B) B = VB(A + B) 



XV 

USEFUL TABLES 

The Metric System. — Although the metric system was 
legalized by the United States Government in 1866, it has 
been little used in this country outside of the schoolroom 
and laboratory. 

The recent great expansion of the foreign trade of the 
United States ha§, however, brought about conditions 
which render some knowledge of the metric system and its 
equivalents in our ordinary standards of weights and 
measures very useful, if not absolutely necessary, both to 
the manufacturer and the mechanic. 

The metric system is based on the meter, which was de- 
signed to be one ten-millionth part of the earth's me- 
ridian, passing through Dunkirk and Formentera. Later 
investigations, however, have shown that the meter ex- 
ceeds one ten-millionth part by almost one part in 6400. 
The equivalent of the meter, as authorized by the United 
States Government, is 39.37 inches. 

The three principal units are the meter, the unit of 
length ; the liter, the unit of capacity ; and the gram, the 
unit of weight. Multiples of these are obained by pre- 
fixing the Greek words, Deka (10), Hekto (100), and 
Kilo (1,000). Divisions are obtained by prefixing the 
Latin words, deci (1-10), cenii (1-100), and milli (1- 
1000). Abbreviations of the multiples begin with a capi- 
tal letter, and of the divisions with a small letter, as, for 
example : Dekameter is abbreviated thus, Dm, and deci- 
meter thus, dm. 

The liter is equal to the volume occupied by 1 cubic 
decimeter. The gram is the weight of one cubic centimeter 
of pure distilled water at a temperature of 39.2 degrees 
Fahrenheit, the kilogram is the weight of 1 liter of water, 
the tonne is the weight of 1 cubic meter of water. 

497 



498 SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 

The Metric System of Measurement. 



Table No. 1. — Measures of Length. 

1 Millimeter (mm.) = 0.03937 inches, or about ^V inches 
10 Millimeters = 1 Centimeter (cm.) = 0.393 inches 
10 Centimeters = 1 Decimeter (dm.) = 3.937 inches 
10 Decimeters = 1 Meter (m.) = 39.370 inches, 3.280 feet, 

or 1.093 yards 
10 Meters = 1 Dekameter (Dm.) = 32.808 feet 
10 Dekameters = 1 Hektometer (Hm.) = 19.927 rods 
10 Hektometers = 1 Kilometer (Km.) = 1093.61 yards, or 

0.621 mile 
10 Kilometers = lMyriameter (Mm.) = 6.213 miles 
1 inch = 2.54 cm. 1 foot = 0.3048 m. 1 yard = 0.9144 m. 
1 rod = 0.502 Dm. 1 mile = 1.609 Km. 



Table No. 2. — Measures of Weight. 

1 Gramme (g.) = 15.432 grains Troy, or 0.032 ounce Troy, 
or 0.035 ounce avoirdupois 
10 Grammes = 1 Dekagramme (Dg.) = 0.352 oz. avoir. 
10 Dekagrammes = 1 Hektogramme (Hg.)= 3.527 oz. avoir. 
10 Hektogrammes =1 Kilogramme (Kg.) = 2.204 pounds 
1000 Kilogrammes = 1 Tonne (T.) = 2204.621 pounds, or 
1.102 tons of 2000 pounds, or 0.984 tons of 2240 pounds 
1 grain = 0.064 g. 1 ounce avoirdupois = 28.35 g. 

1 ton 2000 pounds = 0.9072 T. 



Table No. 3. — Measures of Capacity. 

1 Liter (1.) = 1 cubic decimeter = 61.027 cubic inches, or 
0.035 cubic feet, or 1.056 liquid quarts, or 0.908 dry 
quarts, or 0.264 gallon. 
10 Liters = 1 Dekaliter (Dl.) =2.641 gallons, or 1.135 pecks 
10 Dekaliters = 1 Hektoliter (HI.) = 2.8375 bushels 
10 Hektoliters = 1 Kiloliter (Kl. ) = 61027.05 cubic inches, 
or 28.375 bushels. 
1 cubic foot = 28.317 1. Igallon = 3.785 1. 



USEFUL TABLES 



499 



Table No. 4 — Squares, Cubes, Square Eoots, Cube 
Eoots and Reciprocals of Numbers from 1 to 500. 



No. 



Square 



1 

2 


1 

4 


3 


9 


4 


16 


5 


25 


6 


36 


7 


49 


8 


64 


9 


81 


10 


100 


11 


121 


12 


144 


13 


169 


14 


196 


15 


225 


16 


256 


17 


289 


18 


324 


19 


361 


20 


400 


21 


441 


22 


484 


23 


529 


24 


576 


25 


625 


26 


676 


27 


729 


28 


784 


29 


841 


30 


900 


31 


961 


32 


1024 


33 


1089 


34 


1156 


35 


1225 


36 


1296 


37 


1369 


38 


1444 



Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Recipiocal 


1 


1.00000 


1.00000 


1.00000 


8 


1.41421 


1.25992 


.50000 


27 


1.73205 


1.44224 


.33333 


64 


2.00000 


1.58740 


.25000 


125 


2.23606 


1.70997 


.20000 


216 


2.44948 


1.81712 


.16666 


343 


2.64575 


1.91293 


.14285 


512 


2.82842 


2.00000 


.12500 


729 


3.00000 


2.08008 


.11111 


1000 


3.16227 


2.15443 


.10000 


1331 


3.31662 


2.22398 


.09090 


1728 


3.46410 


2.28942 


.08333 


2197 


3.60555 


2.35133 


.07602 


2744 


3.74165 


2.41014 


.07142 


3375 


3.87298 


2.46621 


.06666 


4096 


4.00000 


2.51984 


.06250 


4913 


4.12310 


2.57128 


.05882 


5832 


4.24264 


2.62074 


.05555 


6859 


4.35889 


2.66840 


.05263 


8000 


4.47213 


2.71441 


.05000 


9621 


4.58257 


2.75892 


.04761 


10648 


4.69041 


2.80203 


.04545 


12167 


4.79583 


2.84386 


.04347 


13864 


4.89897 


2.88449 


.04166 


15625 


5.00000 


2.92401 


.04000 


17576 


5.09901 


2.96249 


.03846 


19683 


5.19615 


3.00000 


.03703 


21952 


5.29150 


3.03658 


.03571 


24389 


5.38516 


3.07231 


.03448 


27000 


5.47722 


3.10723 


.03333 


29791 


5.56776 


3.14138 


.03225 


32768 


5.65685 


3.17480 


.03125 


35937 


5.74456 


3.20753 


.03030 


39304 


5.83095 


3.23961 


.02941 


42875 


5.91607 


3.27106 


.02857 


46656 


6.00000 


3.30192 


.02777 


50653 


6.08276 


3.33222 


.02702 


54872 


6.16441 


3.36197 


.02631 



500 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



No. 
39 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


1521 


59319 


6.24499 


3.3912J 


.02564 


40 


1600 


64000 


6.32455. 


3.41995 


.02500 


41 


1681 


68921 


6.40312 


3.44821 


.02439 


42 


1764 


74088 


6.48074 


3.47602 


.02380 


43 


1849 


79507 


6.55743 


3.50339 


.02325 


44 


1936 


85184 


6.63324 


3.53034 


.02272 


45 


2025 


91125 


• 6.70820 


3.55689 


.02222 


46 


2116 


97336 


6.78233 


3.58304 


.02173 


47 


2209 


103823 


6.85565 


3.60882 


.02127 


48 


2304 


110592 


6.92820 


3.63424 


.02083 


49 


2401 


117649 


7.00000 


3.65930 


.02040 


50 


2500 


125000 


7.07106 


3.68403 


.02000 


51 


2601 


132651 


7.14142 


3.70842 


.01960 


52 


2704 


140608 


7.21110 


3.73251 


.01923 


53 


2809 


148877 


7.28010 


3.75628 


.01886 


54 


2916 


157464 


7.34846 


3.77976 


.01851 


55 


3025 


166375 


7.41619 


3.80295 


.01818 


56 


3136 


175616 


7.48331 


3.82586 


.01785 


57 


3249 


185193 


7.54983 


3.84850 


.01754 


58 


3364 


195112 


7.61577 


3.87087 


.01724 


59 


3481 


205379 


7.68114 


3.89299 


.01694 


60 


3600 


216000 


7.74596 


3.91486 


.01666 


61 


3721 


226981 


7.81024 


3.93649 


.01639 


62 


3844 


238328 


7.87400 


3.95789 


.01612 


63 


3969 


250047 


7.98725 


3.97905 


.01587 


64 


4096 


262144 


8.00000 


4.00000 


.01562 


65 


4225 


274625 


8.06225 


4.02072 


.01538 


66 


4356 


287496 


8.12403 


4.04124 


.01515 


67 


4489 


300763 


8.18535 


4.06154 


.01492 


68 


4624 


314432 


8.24621 


4.08165 


.01470 


69 


4761 


328500 


8.30662 


4.10156 


.01449 


70 


4900 


343000 


8.36660 


4.12128 


.01428 


71 


5041 


357911 


8.42614 


4.14081 


.01408 


72 


5184 


373248 


8.48528 


4.16016 


.01388 


73 


5329 


389017 


8.54400 


4.17933 


.01369 


74 


5476 


405224 


8.60232 


4.19833 


.01351 


75 


5625 


421875 


8.66025 


4.21716 


.01333 


76 


5776 


438976 


8.71779 


4.23582 


.01315 


77 


5929 


456533 


8.77496 


4.25432 


.01298 


78 


6084 


474552 


8.83176 


4.27265 


.01282 


79 


6241 


493039 


8.88819 


4.29084 


.01265 


80 


6400 


512000 


8.94427 


4.30886 


.01250 



USEFUL TABLES 



501 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


81 


6561 


531441 


9.00000 


4.32674 


.01234 


82 


6724 


551368 


9.05538 


4.34448 


.01219 


83 


6889 


571787 


9.11043 


4.36207 


.01204 


84 


7056 


592704 


9.16515 


4.37951 


.01190 


85 


7225 


614125 


9.21954 


4.39682 


.01176 


86 


7396 


636056 


9.27361 


4.41400 


.01162 


87 


7569 


658503 


9.32737 


4.43104 


.01149 


88 


7744 


681472 


9.38083 


4.44796 


.01136 


89 


7921 


704969 


9.43398 


4.46474 


.01123 


90 


8100 


729000 


9.48683 


4.48140 


.01111 


91 


8281 


753571 


9.53939 


4.49794 


.01098 


92 


8464 


778688 


9.59166 


4.51435 


.01086 


93 


8649 


804357 


9.64365 


4.53065 


.01075 


94 


8836 


830584 


9.69535 


4.54683 


.01063 


95 


9025 


. 857375 


9.74679 


4.56290 


.01052 


96 


9216 


884736 


9.79795 


4.57885 


.01041 


97 


9409 


912673 


9.84885 


4.59470 


.01030 


98 


9604 


941192 


9.89949 


4.61043 


.01020 


99 


9801 


970299 


9.94987 


4.62606 


.01010 


100 


10000 


1000000 


10.00000 


4.64158 


.01000 


101 


10201 


1030301 


10.04987 


4.65700 


.00990 


102 


10404 


1061208 


10.09950 


4.67232 


.00980 


103 


10609 


1092727 


10.14889 


4.68754 


.00970 


104 


10816 


1124864 


10.19803 


4.70266 


.00961 


105 


11025 


1157625 


10.24695 


4.71769 


.00952 


106 


11236 


1191016 


10.29563 


4.73262 


.00943 


107 


11449 


1225043 


10.34408 


4.74745 


.00934 


108 


11664 


1259712 


10.39230 


4.76220 


.00925 


109 


11881 


1295029 


10.44030 


4.77685 


.00917 


110 


12100 


1331000 


10.48808 


4.79141 


.00909 


111 


12321 


1367631 


10.53565 


4.80589 


.00900 


112 


12544 


1404928 


10.58300 


4.82028 


.00892 


113 


12769 


1442897 


10.63014 


4.83458 


.00884 


114 


12996 


1481544 


10.67707 


4.84880 


.00877 


115 


13225 


1520875 


10.72380 


4.86294 


.00869 


116 


13456 


1560896 


10.77032 


4.87699 


.00862 


117 


13689 


1601613 


10.81665 


4.89097 


.00854 


118 


13924 


1643032 


10.86278 


4.90486 


.00847 


119 


14161 


1685159 


10.90871 


4.91868 


.00840 


120 


14400 


1728000 


10.95445 


4.93242 


.00833 


121 


14641 


1771561 


11.00000 


4.94608 


.00826 


122 


14884' 


1815848 


11.04536 


4.95967 


.00819 



502 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


123 


15129 


1860867 


11.09053 


4.97318 


.00813 


124 


15376 


1906624 


11.13552 


4.98663 


.00806 


125 


15625 


1953125 


11.18033 


5.00000 


.00800 


126 


15876 


2000376 


11.22497 


5.01329 


.00793 


127 


16129 


2048383 


11.26942 


5.02652 


.00787 


128 


16384 


2097152 


11.31370 


5.03968 


.00781 


129 


16641 


2146689 


11.35781 


5.05277 


.00775 


130 


16900 


2197000 


11.40175 


5.06579 


.00769 


131 


17161 


2248091 


11.44552 


5.07875 


.00763 


132 


17424 


2299968 


11.48912 


5.09164 


.00757 


133 


17689 


2352637 


11.53256 


5.10446 


.00751 


134 


17956 


2406104 


11.57583 


5.11722 


.00746 


135 


18225 


2460375 


11.61895 


5.12992 


.00740 


136 


18496 


2515456 


11.66190 


5.14256 


.00735 


137 


18769 


2571353 


11.70469 


5.15513 


.00729 


138 


19044 


2628072 


11.74734 


5.16764 


.00724 


139 


19321 


2685619 


11.78982 


5.18010 


.00719 


140 


19600 


2744000 


11.83215 


5.19249 


.00714 


141 


19881 


2803221 


11.87434 


5.20482 


.00709 


142 


20164 


2863288 


11.91637 


5.21710 


.00704 


143 


20449 


2924207 


11.95826 


5.22932 


.00699 


144 


20736 


2985984 


12.00000 


5.24148 


.00694 


145 


21025 


3048625 


12.04159 


5.25358 


.00689 


146 


21316 


3112136 


12.08304 


5.26563 


.00684 


147 


21609 


3176523 


12.12435 


5.27763 


.00680 


148 


21904 


3241792 


12.16552 


5.28957 


.00675 


149 


22201 


3307949 


12.20655 


5.30145 


.00671 


150 


22500 


3375000 


12.24744 


5.31329 


.00666 


151 


22801 


3442951 


12.28820 


5.32507 


.00662 


152 


23104 


3511808 


12.32882 


5.33680 


.00657 


153 


23409 


3581577 


12.36931 


5.34848 


.00653 


154 


23716 


3652264 


12.40967 


5.36010 


.00649 


155 


24025 


3723875 


12.44989 


5.37168 


.00645 


156 


24336 


3796416 


12.48999 


5.38321 


.00641 


157 


24649 


3869893 


12.52996 


5.39469 


.00636 


158 


24964 


3944312 


12.56980 


5.40612 


.00632 


159 


25281 


4019679 


12.60952 


5.41750 


.00628 


160 


25600 


4096000 


12.64911 


5.42883 


.00625 


161 


25921 


4173281 


12.68857 


5.44012 


.00621 


162 


26244 


4251528 


12.72792 


5.45136 


.00617 


163 


26569 


4330747 


12.76714 


5.46255 


.00613 


164 


26896 


4410944 


12.80624 


5.47370 


.00609 



USEFUL TABLES 



503 



No. 
165 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


27225 


4492125 


12.84523 


5.48480 


.00606 


166 


27556 


4574296 


12.88409 


5.49586 


.00602 


167 


27889 


4657463 


12.92284 


5.50687 


.00598 


168 


28224 


4741632 


12.96148 


5.51784 


.00595 


169 


28561 


4826809 


13.00000 


5.52877 


.00591 


170 


28900 


4913000 


13.03840 


5.53965 


.00588 


171 


29241 


5000211 


13.07669 


5.55049 


.00584 


172 


29584 


5088448 


13.11487 


5.56129 


.00581 


173 


29929 


5177717 


13.15294 


5.57205 


.00578 


174 


30276 


5268024 


13.19090 


5.58277 


.00574 


175 


30625 


5359375 


13.22875 


5.59344 


.00571 


176 


30976 


5451776 


13.26649 


5.60407 


.00568 


177 


31329 


5545233 


13.30413 


5.61467 


.00564 


178 


31684 


5639752 


13.34166 


5.62522 


.00561 


179 


32041 


5735339 


13.37908 


5.63574 


.00558 


180 


32400 


5832000 


13.41640 


5.64621 


.00555 


181 


32761 


5929741 


13.45362 


5.65665 


.00552 


182 


33124 


6028568 


13.49073 


5.66705 


.00549 


183 


33489 


6128487 


13.52774 


5.67741 


.00546 


184 


33856 


6229504 


13.56466 


5.68773 


.00543 


185 


34225 


6331625 


13.60147 


5.69801 


.00540 


186 


34596 


6434856 


13.63818 


5.70826 


.00537 


187 


34969 


6539203 


13.67479 


5.71847 


.00534 


188 


35344 


6644672 


13.71130 


5.72865 


.00531 


189 


35721 


6751269 


13.74772 


5.73879 


.00529 


190 


36100 


6859000 


13.78404 


5.74889 


.00526 


191 


36481 


6967871 


13.82027 


5.75896 


.00523 


192 


36864 


7077888 


13.85640 


5.76899 


.00520 


193 


37249 


7189057 


13.89244 


5.77899 


.00518 


194 


37636 


7301384 


13.92838 


5.78896 


.00515 


195 


38025 


7414875 


13.96424 


5.79889 


.00512 


196 


38416 


7529536 


14.00000 


5.80878 


.00510 


197 


38809 


7645373 


14.03566 


5.81864 


.00507 


198 


39204 


7762392 


14.07124 


5.82847 


.00505 


199 


39601 


7880599 


14.10673 


5.83827 


.00502 


200 


40000 


8000000 


14.14213 


5.84803 


.00500 


201 


40401 


8120601 


14.17744 


5.85776 


.00497 


202 


40804 


8242408 


14.21267 


5.86746 


.00495 


203 


41209 


8365427 


14.24780 


5.87713 


.00492 


204 


41616 


8489664 


14.28285 


5.88676 


.00490 


205 


42025 


8615125 


14.31782 


5.89636 


.00487 


206 


42436 


8741816 


14.35270 


5.90594 


.00485 



504 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


207 


42849 


8869743 


14.38749 


5.91548 


.00483 


208 


43264 


8998912 


14.42220 


5.92499 


.00480 


209 


43681 


9129329 


14.45683 


5.93447 


.00478 


210 


44100 


9261000 


14.49137 


5.94392 


.00476 


211 


44521 


9393931 


14.52583 


5.95334 


.00473 


212 


44944 


9528128 ' 


14.56021 


5.96273 


.00471 


213 


45369 


9663597 


14.59451 


5.97209 


.00469 


214 


45796 


9800344 


14.62873 


5.98142 


.00467 


215 


46225 


9938375 


14.66287 


5.99072 


.00465 


216 


46656 


10077696 


14.69693 


6.00000 


.00462 


217 


47089 


10218313 


14.73091 


6.00924 


.00460 


218 


47524 


10360232 


14.76482 


6.01846 


.00458 


219 


47961 


10503459 


14.79864 


6.02765 


.00456 


220 


48400 


10648000 


14.83239 


6.03681 


.00454 


221 


48841 


10793861 


14.86606 


6.04594 


.00452 


222 


49284 


10941048 


14.89966 


6.05504 


.00450 


223 


49729 


11089567 


14.93318 


6.06412 


.00448 


224 


50176 


11239424 


14.96662 


6.07317 


.00446 


225 


50625 


11390625 


15.00000 


6.08220 


.00444 


226 


51076 


11543176 


15.03329 


6.09119 


.00442 


227 


51529 


11697083 


15.06651 


"6.10017 


.00440 


228 


51984 


11852352 


15.09966 


6.10911 


.00438 


229 


52441 


12008989 


15.13274 


6.11803 


.00436 


230 


52900 


12167000 


15.16575 


6.12692 


.00434 


231 


53361 


12326391 


15.19868 


6.13579 


.00432 


232 


53824 


12487168 


15.23154 


6.14463 


.00431 


233 


54289 


12649337 


15.26433 


6.15344 


.00429 


234 


54756 


12812904 


15.29705 


6.16224 


.00427 


235 


55225 


12977875 


15.32970 


6.17100 


.00425 


236 


55696 


13144256 


15.36229 


6.17974 


.00423 


237 


56169 


13312053 


15.39480 


6.18846 


.00421 


238 


56644 


13481272 


15.42724 


6.19715 


.00420 


239 


57121 


13651919 


15.45962 


6.20582 


.00418 


240 


57600 


13824000 


15.49193 


6.21446 


.00416 


241 


58081 


13997521 


15.52417 


6.22308 


.00414 


242 


58564 


14172488 


15.55634 


6.23167 


.00413 


243 


59049 


14348907 


15.58845 


6.24025 


.00411 


244 


59536 


14526784 


15.62049 


6.24879 


.00409 


245 


60025 


14706125 


15.65247 


6.25732 


.00408 


246 


60516 


14886936 


15.68438 


6.26582 


.00406 


247 


61009 


15069223 


15.71623 


6.27430 


.00404 


248 


61504 


15252992 


15.74801 


6.28276 


.00403 



USEFUL TABLES 



505 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


249 


62001 


15438249 


15.77973 


6.29119 


.00401 


250 


62500 


15625000 


15.81138 


6.29960 


.00400 


251 


63001 


15813251 


15.84297 


6.30799 


.00398 


252 


63504 


16003008 


15.87450 


6.31635 


.00396 


253 


64009 


16194277 


15.90597 


6.32470 


.00395 


254 


64516 


' 16387064 


15.93737 


6.33302 


.00393 


255 


65025 


16581375 


15.96871 


6.34132 


.00392 


256 


65536 


16777216 


16.00000 


6.34960 


.00390 


257 


66049 


16974593 


16.03121 


6.35786 


.00389 


258 


66564 


17173512 


16.06237 


6.36609 


.00387 


259 


67081 


17373979 


16.09347 


6.37431 


.00386 


260 


67600 


17576000 


16.12451 


6.38250 


.00384 


261 


68121 


17779581 


16.15549 


6.39067 


.00383 


262 


68644 


17984728 


16.18641 


6,39882 


.00381 


263 


69169 


18191447 


16.21727 


6.40695 


.00380 


264 


69696 


18399744 


16.24807 


6.41506 


.00378 


265 


70225 


18609625 


16.27882 


6.42315 


.00377 


266 


70756 


18821096 


16.30950 


6.43122 


.00375 


267 


71289 


19034163 


16.34013 


6.43927 


.00374 


268 


71824 


19248832 


16.37070 


6.44730 


.00373 


269 


72361 


19465109 


16.40121 


6.45531 


.00371 


270 


72900 


19683000 


16.43167 


6.46330 


.00370 


271 


73441 


19902511 


16.46207 


6.47127 


.00369 


272 


73984 


20123648 


16.49242 


6.47922 


.00367 


273 


74529 


20346417 


16.52271 


6.48715 


.00366 


274 


75076 


20570824 


16.55294 


6.49506 


.00364 


275 


75625 


20796875 


16.58312 


6.50295 


.00363 


276 


76176 


21024576 


16.61324 


6.51083 


.00362 


277 


76729 


21253933 


16.64331 


6.51868 


,00361 


278 


77284 


21484952 


16.67333 


6.52651 


.00359 


279 


77841 


21717639 


16.70329 


6.53433 


.00358 


280 


78400 


21952000 


16.73320 


6.54213 


.00357 


281 


78961 


22188041 


16.76305 


6.54991 


.00355 


282 


79524 


22425768 


16.79285 


6.55767 


.00354 


283 


80089 


22665187 


16.82260 


6.56541 


.00353 


284 


80656 


22906304 


16.85229 


6.57313 


.00352 


285 


81225 


23149125 


16.88194 


6.58084 


.00350 


286 


81796 


23393656 


16.91153 


6.58853 


.00349 


287 


82369 


23639903 


16.94107 


6.59620 


.00348 


288 


82944 


23887872 


16.97056 


6.60385 


.00347 


289 


83521 


24137569 


17.00000 


6.61148 


.00346 


290 


84100 


24389000 


17.02938 


6.61910 


,00344 



506 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


291 


84681 


24642171 


17.05872 


6.62670 


.00343 


292 


85264 


24897088 


17.08800 


6.63428 


.00342 


293 


85849 


25153757 


17.11724 


6.64185 


.00341 


294 


86436 


25412184 


17.14642 


6.64939 


.00340 


295 


87025 


25672375 


17.17556 


6.65693 


.00338 


296 


87616 


25934336 


17.20465 


6.66444 


.00337 


297 


88209 


26198073 


17.23368 


6.67194 


.00336 


298 


88804 


26463592 


17.26267 


6.67942 


.00335 


299 


89401 


26730899 


17.29161 


6.68688 


.00334 


300 


90000 


27000000 


17.32050 


6.69432 


.00333 


301 


90601 


27270901 


17.34935 


6.70175 


.00332 


302 


91204 


27543608 


17.37814 


6.70917 


.00331 


303 


91809 


27818127 


17.40689 


6.71657 


.00330 


304 


92416 


28094464 


17.43559 


6.72395 


.00328 


305 


93025 


28372625 


17.46424 


6.73131 


.00327 


306 


93636 


28652616 . 


17.49285 


6.73866 


.00326 


307 


94249 


28934443 


17.52141 


6.74599 


.00325 


308 


94864 


29218112 


17.54992 


6.75331 


.00324 


309 


95481 


29503629 


17.57839 


6.76061 


.00323 


310 


96100 


29791000 


17.60681 


6.76789 


.00322 


311 


96721 


30080231 


17.63519 


6.77516 


.00321 


312 


97344 


30371328 


17.66352 


6.78242 


.00320 


313 


97969 


30664297 


17.69180 


6.78966 


.00319 


314 


98596 


30959144 


17.72004 


6.79688 


.00318 


315 


99225 


31255875 


17.74823 


6.80409 


.00317 


316 


99856 


31554496 


17.77638 


6.81128 


.00316 


317 


100489 


31855013 


17.80449 


6.81846 


.00315 


318 


101124 


32157432 


17.83255 


6.82562 


.00314 


319 


101761 


32461759 


17.86057 


6.83277 


.00313 


320 


102400 


32768000 


17.88854 


6.83990 


.00312 


321 


103041 


32076161 


17.91647 


6.84702 


.00311 


322 


103684 


33386248 


17.94435 


6.85412 


.00310 


323 


104329 


33698267 


17.97220 


6.86121 


.00309 


324 


104976 


34012224 


18.00000 


6.86828 


.00308 


325 


105625 


34328125 


18.02775 


6.87534 


,00307 


326 


106276 


34645976 


18.05547 


6.88238 


.00306 


327 


106929 


34965783 


18.08314 


6.88941 


.00305 


328 


107584 


35287552 


18.11077 


6.89643 


.00304 


329 


108241 


35611289 


18.13835 


6.90343 


.00303 


330 


108900 


35937000 


18.16590 


6.91042 


.00303 


331 


109561 


36264691 


18.19340 


6.91739 


.00302 


332 


110224 


36594368 


18.22086 


6.92435 


.00301 



USEFUL TABLES 



507 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


333 


110889 


36926037 


18.24828 


6.93130 


.00300 


334 


111556 


37259704 


18.27566 


6.93823 


.00299 


335 


112225 


37595375 


18.30300 


6.94514 


•00298 


336 


112896 


37933056 


18.33030 


6.95205 


.00297 


337 


113569 


38272753 


18.35755 


6.95894 


.00296 


338 


114244 


38614472 


18.38477 


6.96581 


.00295 


339 


114921 


38958219 


18.41195 


6.97268 


.00294 


340 


115600 


39304000 


18.43908 


6.97953 


.00294 


341 


116281 


39651821 


18.46618 


6.98636 


.00293 


342 


116964 


40001688 


18.49324 


6.99319 


.00292 


343 


117649 


40353607 


18.52025 


7.00000 


.00291 


344 


118336 


40707584 


18.54723 


7.00679 


.00290 


345 


119025 


41063625 


18.57417 


7.01357 


.00289 


346 


119716 


41421736 


18.60107 


7.02034 


.00289 


347 


120409 


41781923 


18.62793 


7.02710 


.00288 


348 


121104 


42144192 


18.65475 


7.03384 


.00287 


349 


121801 


42508549 


18.68151 


7.04058 


.00286 


350 


122500 


42875000 


18.70828 


7.04729 


.00285 


351 


123201 


43243551 


18.73499 


7.05400 


.00284 


352 


123904 


43614208 


18.76166 


7.06069 


.00284 


353 


124609 


43986977 


18.78829 


7.06737 


.00283 


354 


125316 


44361864 


18.81488 


7.07404 


.00282 


355 


126025 


44738875 


18.84144 


7.08069 


.00281 


356 


126736 


45118016 


18.86796 


7.08734 


.00280 


357 


127449 


45499293 


18.89444 


7.09397 


.00280 


358 


" 128164 


45882712 


18.92088 


7.10058 


.00279 


359 


128881 


46268279 


18.94729 


7.10719 


.00278 


360 


129600 


46656000 


18.97366 


7.11378 


.00277 


361 


130321 


47045881 


19.00000 


7.12036 


.00277 


362 


131044 


47437928 


19.02629 


7.12693 


.00276 


363 


131769 


47832147 


19.05255 


7.13349 


.00275 


364 


132496 


48228544 


19.07878 


7.14003 


.00274 


365 


133225 


48627125 


19.10497 


7.14656 


.00273 


366 


133956 


49027896 


19.13112 


7.15309 


.00273 


367 


134689 


49430863 


19.15724 


7.15959 


c 00272 


368 


135424 


49836032 


19.18332 


7.16609 


.00271 


369 


136161 


50243409 


19.20937 


7.17258 


.00271 


370 


136900 


50653000 


19.23538 


7.17905 


.00270 


371 


137641 


51064811 


19.26136 


7.18551 


.00269 


372 


138384 


51478848 


19.28730 


7.19196 


.00268 


373 


139129 


51895117 


19.31320 


7.19840 


.00268 


374 


13987a 


52313624 


19.33907 


7.20483 


.00267 



508 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


375 


140625 


52734375 


19.36491 


7.21124 


.00266 


376 


141376 


53157376 


19.39071 


7.21765 


.00265 


377 


142129 


53582633 


19.41648 


7.22404 


.00265 


378 


142884 


54010152 


19.44222 


7.23042 


.00264 


379 


143641 


54439939 


19.46792 


7.23679 


.00263 


380 


144400 


54872000 


19.49358 


7.24315 


.00263 


381 


145161 


55306341 


19.51922 


7.24950 


.00262 


382 


145924 


55742968 


19.54482 


7.25584 


.00261 


383 


146689 


56181887 


19.57038 


7.26216 


.00261 


384 


147456 


56623104 


19.59591 


7.26848 


.00260 


385 


148225 


57066625 


19.62141 


7.27478 


.00259 


386 


148996 


57512456 


19.64688 


7.28107 


.00259 


387 


149769 


57960603 


19.67231 


7.28736 


.00258 


388 


150544 


58411072 


19.69771 


7.29363 


.00257 


389 


151321 


58863869 


19.72308 


7.29989 


.00257 


390 


152100 


59319000 


19.74841 


7.30614 


.00256 


391 


152881 


59776471 


19.77371 


7.31238 


.00255 


392 


153664 


60236288 


19.79898 


7.31861 


.00255 


393 


154449 


60698457 


19.82422 


7.32482 


.00254 


394 


155236 


61162984 


19.84943 


7.33103 


.00253 


395 


156025 


61629875 


19.87460 


7.33723 


.00253 


396 


156816 


62099136 


19.89974 


7.34342 


.00252 


397 


157609 


62570773 


19.92485 


7.34959 


.00251 


398 


158404 


63044792 


19.94993 


7.35576 


.00251 


399 


159201 


63521199 


19.97498 


7.36191 


.00250 


400 


160000 


64000000 


20.00000 


7.36806 


.00250 


401 


160801 


64481201 


20.02498 


7.37419 


.00249 


402 


161604 


64964808 


20.04993 


7.38032 


.00248 


403 


162409 


65450827 


20.07485 


7.38643 


.00248 


404 


163216 


65939264 


20.09975 


7.39254 


.00247 


405 


164025 


66430125 


20.12461 


7.39863 


.00246 


406 


164836 


66923416 


20.14944 


7.40472 


.00246 


407 


165649 


67419143 


20.17424 


7.41079 


.00245 


408 


166464 


67917312 


20.19900 


7.41685 


.00245 


409 


167281 


68417929 


20.22374 


7.42291 


.00244 


410 


168100 


68921000 


20.24845 


7.42895 


.00243 


411 


168921 


69426531 


20.27313 


7.43499 


.00243 


412 


169744 


69934528 


20.29778 


7.44101 


.00242 


413 


170569 


70444997 


20.32240 


7.44703 


.00242 


414 


171396 


70957944 


20.34698 


7.45303 


.00241 


415 


172225 


71473375 


20.37154 


7.45903 


.00240 


416 


173056 


71991296 


20.39607 


7.46502 


.00240 

1 



USEFUL TABLES 



509 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciproca 


417 


173889 


72511713 


20.42057 


7.47099 


.00239 


418 


174724 


73034632 


20.44504 


7.47696 


.00239 


419 


175561 


73560059 


20.46948 


7.48292 


.00238 


420 


176400 


74088000 


20.49390 


7.48887 


.00238 


421 


177241 


74618461 


20.51828 


7.49481 


.00237 


422 


178084 


75151448 


20.54263 


7.50074 


.00236 


423 


178929 


75686967 


20.56696 


7.50666 . 


.00236 


424 


179776 


76225024 


20.59126 


7.51257 


.00235 


425 


180625 


76765625 


20.61552 


7.51847 


.00235 


426 


181476 


77308776 


20.63976 


7.52436 


.00234 


427 


182329 


77854483 


20.66397 


7.53024 


.00234 


428 


183184 


78402752 


20.68816 


7.53612 


.00233 


429 


184041 


78953589 


20.71231 


7.54198 


.00233 


430 


184900 


79507000 


20.73644 


7.54784 


.00232 


431 


185761 


80062991 


20.76053 


7.55368 


.00232 


432 


186624 


80621568 


20.78460 


7.55952 


.00231 


433 


187489 


81182737 


20.80865 


7.56535 


.00230 


434 


188356 


81746504 


20.83266 


7.57117 


00230 


435 


189225 


82312875 


20.85665 


7.57689 


.00229 


436 


190096 


82881856 


20.88061 


7.58278 


.00229 


437 


190969 


83453453 


20.90454 


7.58857 


.00228 


438 


191844 


- 84027672 


20.92844 


7.59436 


.00228 


439 


192721 


84604519 


20.95232 


7.60013 


.00227 


440 


193600 


85184000 


20.97617 


7.60590 


.00227 


441 


194481 


85766121 


21.00000 


7.61166 


.00226 


442 


195364 


86350888 


21.02379 


7.61741 


.00226 


443 


196249 


86938307 


21.04756 


7.62315 


.00225 


444 


197136 


87528384 


21.07130 


7.62888 


.00225 


445 


198025 


88121125 


21.09502 


7.63460 


.00224 


446 


198916 


88716536 


21.11871 


7.64032 


.00224 


447 


199809 


89314623 


21.14237 


7.64602 


.00223 


448 


200704 


89915392 


21.16601 


7.65172 


.00223 


449 


201601 


90518849 


21.18962 


7.65741 


.00222 


450 


202500 


91125000 


21.21320 


7.66309 


.00222 


451 


203401 


91733851 


21.23676 


7.66876 


.00221 


452 


204304 


92345408 


21.26029 


7.67443 


.00221 


453 


205209 


92959677 


21.28379 


7.68008 


.00220 


454 


206116 


93576664 


21.30727 


7.68573 


.00220 


455 


207025 


94196375 


21.33072 


7.69137 


.00219 


456 


207936 


94818816 


21.35415 


7.69700 


.00219 


457 


208849 


95443993 


21.37755 


7.70262 


.00218 


458 


209764 


96071912 


21.40093 


7.70823 


.00218 
-A I 



510 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



No. 


Square 


Cube 


Square Root 


Cube Root 


Reciprocal 


459 


210681 


96702579 


21.42428 


7.71384 


.00217 


460 


211600 


97336000 


21.44761 


7.71944 


.00217 


461 


212521 


97972181 


21.47091 


7.72503 


.00216 


462 


213444 


98611128 


21.49418 


7.73061 


.00216 


463 


214369 


99252847 


21.51743 


7.73618 


.00215 


464 


215296 


99897344 


21.54065 


7.74175 


.00215 


465 


216225 


100544625 


21.56385 


7.74731 


.00215 


466 


217156 


101194696 


21.58703 


7.75286 


.00214 


467 


218089 


101847563 


21.61018 


7.75840 


.00214 


468 


219024 


102503232 


21.63330 


7.76393 


.00213 


469 


219961 


103161709 


21.65640 


7.76946 


.00213 


470 


220900 


103823000 


21.67948 


7.77498 


.00212 


471 


221841 


104487111 


21.70253 


7.78049 


.00212 


472 


222784 


105154048 


21.72556 


7.78599 


.00211 


473 


223729 


105823817 


21.74856 


7.79148 


.00211 


474 


.224676 


106496424 


21.77154 


7.79697 


.00210 


475 


225625 


107171875 


21.79449 


7.80245 


.00210 


476 


226576 


107850176 


21.81742 


7.80792 


.00210 


477 


227529 


108531333 


21.84032 


7.81338 


.00209 


478 


228484 


109215352 


21.86321 


7.81884 


.00209 


479 


229441 


109902239 


21.88606 


7.82429 


.00208 


480 


230400 


110592000 


21.90890 


7.82973 


.00208 


481 


231361 


111284641 


21.93171 


7.83516 


.00207 


482 


232324 


111980168 


21.95449 


7.84059 


.00207, 


483 


233289 


112678587 


21.97726 


7.84601 


.00207 


484 


234256 


113379904 


22.00000 


7.85142 


.00206 


485 


235225 


114084125 


22.02271 


7.85682 


.00206 


486 


236196 


114791256 


22.04540 


7.86222 


.00205 


487 


237169 


115501303 


22.06807 


7.86761 


.00205 


488 


238144 


116214272 


22.09072 


7.87299 


.00204 


489 


239121 


116930169 


22.11334 


7.87836 


.00204 


490 


240100 


117649000 


22.13594 


7.88373 


.00204 


491 


241081 


118370771 


22.15851 


7.88909 


.00203 


492 


242064 


119095488 


22.18107 


7.89454 


.00203 


493 


243049 


119823157 


22.20360 


7.89979 


.00202 


494 


244036 


120553784 


22.22611 


7.90512 


.00202 


495 


245025 


121287375 


22.24859 


7.91045 


.00202 


496 
497 


246016 


122023936 


22.27105 


7.91578 


.00201 


247009 


122763473 


22.29349 


7.92109 


.00201 


498 


248004 


123505992 


22.31591 


7.92640 


.00200 


499 


249001 


124251499 


22.33830 


7.93171 


.00200 


500 


250000 

1 


125000000 


22.36067 


7.93700 


,00200 



USEFUL TABLES 



511 



Table No. 5. — Decimal Equivalents of 


MlLLI- 




meters and Fractions of Millimeters. 




1 mm. = 


.03937 inches. 




Mm. 


Inches. 


Mm. 


Inches. 


Mm. 


Inches. 


1-50 


= .00079 


26-50 


= .02047 


2 


= .07874 


2-50 


.00157 


27-50 


.02126 


3 


.11811 


3-50 


.00236 


28-50 


.02205 


4 


.15748 


4-50 


.00315 


29-50 


« .02283 


5 


.19685 


5-50 


.00394. 


30-50 


.02362 


6 


.23622 


6-50 


.00472 


31-50 


.02441 


7 


.27559 


7-50 


.00551 


32-50 


.02520 


8 


.31496 


8-50 


.00630 


33-50 


.02598 


9 


.35433 


9-50 


.00709 


34-50 


.02677 


10 


.39370 


10-50 


.00787 


35-50 


.02756 


11 


.43307 


11-50 


.00866 


36-50 


.02835 


12 


.47244 


12-50 


.00945 


37-50 


.02913 


13 


.51181 


13-50 


. .01024 


38-50 


.02992 


14 


.55118 


14-50 


.01102 


39-50 


.03071 


15 


.59055 


15-50 


.01181 


40-50 


.03150 


16 


.62992 


16-50 


.01260 


41-50 


.03228 


17 


.66929 


17-50 


.01339 


42-50 


.03307 


18 


.70866 


18-50 


.01417 


43-50 


.03386 


19 


.74803 


19-50 


.01496 


44-50 


.03465 


20 


.78740 


20-50 


,01575 


45-50 


.03543 


21 


.82677 


21-50 


.01654 


46-50 


.03622 


22 


.86614 


22-50 


.01732 


47-50 


.03701 


23 


.90551 


23-50 


.01811 


48-50 


.03780 


24 


.94488 


24-50 


.01890 


49-50 


.03858 


24 


.98425 


25-50 


.01969 


1 


.03937 


26 


1.02362 



10 Millimeters = 1 Centimeter == 0.3937 inches, 
10 Centimeters = 1 Decimeter = 3.937 inches. 
10 Decimeters = 1 Meter = 39,37 inches. 
2.54 Centimeters = 1 inch. 



512 


SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 






Table No. 6. 


— Tapers and . 


Angles. 




Taper 
Per Foot 


Whole Angle. 


Half Angle with 
Center Line. 


Taper Per 
Inch of 
Whole 
Angle. 


Taper Per 

Inch from 

Center 

Line or 

Half 

Angle. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Deg. 


Min. 


% 





36 





18 


.010416 


.005203 


3 
TT 





54 





27 


.015625 


.007812 


% 


1 


12 





36 


.020833 


.010416 


5 
TT 


1 


30 





45 


.026042 


.013021 


7s 


1 


47 





53 


.031250 


.015625 


7 
TT 


2 


05 


1 


02 


.036458 


.018229 


V 


2 


23 


1 


11 


.041667 


.020833 


9 

TT 


2 


42 


1 


21 


.046875 


.023438 


% 


3 


00 


1 


30 


.052084 


.026042 


1 1 
TT 


3 


18 


1 


39 


.057292 


.028646 


% 


3 


25 


1 


47 


.062500 


.031250 


1 3 
TT 


3 


52 


• 1 


56 


.067708 


.033854 




4 


12 


2 


06 


.072917 


.036456 


1 5 
TT 


4 


28 


2 


14 


.078125 


.039063 


1 


4 


45 


2 


23 


.083330 


.041667 


IX 


5 


58 


2 


59 


.104666 


.052084 


IX 


7 


08 


3 


34 ' 


.125000 


.062500 


1% 


8 


20 


4 


10 


.145833 


.072917 


2 


9 


32 


4 


46 


.166666 


.083332 


2% 


11 


54 


5 


57 


.208333 


.104166 


3 


14 


16 


7 


08 


.250000 


.125000 


3X 


16 


36 


8 


18 


.291666 


.145833 


4 


18 


54 


9 


27 


.333333 


.166666 


4% 


21 


40 


10 


50 


.375000 


.187500 


5 


24 


04 


12 


02 


.416666 


.208333 


6 


28 


06 


14 


03 


.500000 


.250000 



USEFUL TABLES 



513 



Table No. 7. — Decimal Parts of an Inch. 



1-64 
1-32 
3-64 
1-16 

5-64 
3-32 
7-64 
1-8 

9-64 

5-32 

11-64 

3-16 

13-64 
7-32 

15-64 
1-4 

17-64 
9-32 

19-64 
5-16 

21-64 



.01563 
.03125 
.04688 
.0625 

.07813 
.09375 
.10938 
.125 

.14063 
.15625 
.17188 
.1875 

.20313 
.21875 
.23438 
.25 

.26563 
.28125 
.29688 
.3125 

.32813 



11-32 

23-64 

3-8 

25-64 

13-32 

27-64 

7-16 

29-64 

15-32 

31-64 

1-2 

33-64 

17-32 

35-64 

9-16 

37-64 

19-32 

39-64 

5-8 

41-64 
21-32 



.34375 
.35938 
.375 

.39063 
.40625 
.42188 
.4375 

.45313 
.46875 
.48438 
.5 

.51563 
.53125 
.54688 
.5625 

.57813 
.59375 
.60938 
.625 

.64063 
.65625 



43-64 
11-16 

45-64 

23-32 

47-64 

3-4 

49-64 
25-32 
51-64 
13-16 

53-64 

27-32 

55-64 

7-8 

57-64 
29-31 
59-64 
15-16 

61-64 
31-32 
63-64 



.67188 

.6875 

.70313 

.71875 
.73438 

.75 

.76563 
.78125 
.79688 
.8125 

.82813 
.84375 
.85938 
.875 

89063 
.90625 
.92188 
.9375 

.95313 
.96875 
.97438 



Table No. 


8. — Melting Points 


of Alloys of Tin, 




Lead and Bismuth. 




Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit. 


Tin. 


Lead. 


Bismuth. 


Melting 
Point in 
Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit, 


2 


3 


5' 


199 


4 


1 




372 


1 


1 


4 


201 


5 


1 




381 


3 


2 


5 


212 


2 


1 




385 


4 


1 


5 


246 


3 




1 


392 


1 




1 


286 


1 


1 




466 


2 




1 


334 


1 


3 




552 


3 


1 




367 











514 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 9. — Dimensions 


of Wrought-Iron Pipe. 




Actual 


Actual 


Thickness 




Length of 


Nominal 


Outside 


Inside 


of Metal 


Threads 


Full 


Inside 


Diameter 


Diameter 


in Inches. 


per Inch. 


Thread 


Diameter. 


in Inches. 


in Inches. 






in Inches* 


% 


.405 


.270 


.068 


27 


.19 


X A 


.540 


.364 


.085 


18 


.29 


% 


.675 


.493 


- .091 


18 


.30 


X 


.840 


.622 


.109 


14 


,39 


% 


1.050 


.824 


.113 


14 


.40 


l 


1.315 


1.048 


.134 


11% 


.51 


lH 


1,660 


1.380 


.140 


11% 


.54 


i% 


1.900 


1.610 


.145 


11% 


.55 


2 


2.375 


2.067 


.154 


11% 


.58 


2% 


2.875 


2.468 


.204 


8 


.89 


3 


3.500 


3.067 


.217 


8 


.95 


8X 


4.000 


3.548 


.226 


8 


1.00 


4 


4.500 


4.026 


.237 


8 


1.05 


4X 


5.000 


4.508 


.246 


8 


1.10 


5 


5.563 


5.045 


.259 


8 


1.16 


6 


6.625 


6.065 


.280 


8 


1.26 


7 


7.625 


7.023 


.301 


8 


1.36 


8 


8.625 


7.981 


.322 


8 


1.46 


9 


9.625 


8.937 


.344 


8 


1.57 


10 


10.750 


10.018 


.366 


8 


1.68 


11 


11.75 


11.000 


.375 


8 


1.78 


12 


12.75 


12.000 


.375 


8 


1.88 


13 


14. 


13.25 


.375 


8 


2.09 


14 


15. 


14.25 


.375 


8 


2.10 ! 


15 


16. 


15.25 


.375 


8 


2.20 



Taper of the thread is % inch to one foot. 

Pipe from % inch to 1 inch inclusive is butt welded and 
tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 

Pipe 1% inch and larger is lap welded and tested to 500 
pounds per square inch. 



USEFUL TABLES 



515 



Table No. 10.— Weight per Foot of Square 


and Round Iron Bars, Iron Weighing 




480 Pounds per Cubic Foot. 




Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


or 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


or 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


Diameter 


One Font 


One Foot 


Diameter 


One Foot 


One Foot 


in Inches. 


Long. 


Long. 


in Inches 


Long 


Long 


1-16 


.013 


.010 


2 1-16 


14.18 


11.14 


1-8 


.052 


.041 


1-8 


15.05 


11.82 


3-16 


.117 


.092 


3-16 


15.95 


12.53 


1-4 


.208 


.164 


1-4 


16.88 


13.25 


5-16 


.326 


.256 


5-16 


17.83 


14.00 


3-8 


.469 


.368 


3-8 


18.80 


14.77 


7-16 


.638 


.501 


7-16 


19.80 


15.55 


1-2 


.833 


.654 


1-2 


20.83 


16.36 


9-16 


1.055 


.828 


9-16 


21.89 


17.19 


5-8 


1.302 


1.023 


5-8 


22.97 


18.04 


11-16 


1.576 


1.237 


11-16 


24.08 


18.91 


3-4 


1.875 


1.473 


3-4 


25.21 


19.80 


13-16 


2.201 


1.728 


13-16 


26.37 


20.71 


7-8 


2.552 


2.004 


7-8 


27.55 


21.64 


5-16 


2.930 


2.301 


15-16 


28.76 


22.59 


1 


3.333 


2.618 


3 


30.00 


23.56 


1-16 


3.763 


2.955 


1-16 


31.26 


24.55 


1-8 


4.219 


3.313 


1-8 


32.55 


25.57 


3-16 


4.701 


3.692 


3-16 


33.87 


26.60 


1-4 


5.208 


4.091 


1-4 


35.21 


27.65 


5-16 


5.742 


4.510 


5-16 


36.58 


28.73 


3-8 


6.302 


4.950 


3-8 


37.97 


29.82 


7-16 


6.888 


5.410 


7-16 


39.39 


30.94 


1-2 


7.500 


5.890 


1-2 


40.83 


32.07 


9-16 


8.138 » 


6.392 


9-16 


42.30 


33.23 


5-8 


8.802 


6.913 


5-8 


43.80 


34.40 


11-16 


9.492 


7.455 


11-16 


45.33 


35.60 


3-4 


10.21 


8.018 


3-4 


46.88 


36.82 


13-16 


19.95 


8.601 


13-16 


48.45 


38.05 


7-8 


11.72 


9.204 


7-8 


50.05 


39.31 


15-16 


12.51 


9.828 


15-16 


51.68 


40.59 


2 


13.33 


10.47 


4 


53.33 


41.89 



516 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL, 



Table No. 11. — Properties 


of Metals. 




Melting Point. 

Degrees 
Fahrenheit. 


Weight 

in Lbs. 

per Cubic 

Foot. 


Weight 

in Lbs. 

per Cubic 

Inch. 


Tensile 

Strength in 

Pounds per 

Square Inch. 


Aluminum 


1140 


166.5 


.0963 


15000-30000 


Antimony 


810-1000 


421.6 


.2439 


1050 


Brass (average) 


1500-1700 


523.2 


.3027 


30000-45000 


Copper 


1930 


552. 


.3195 


30000-40000 


Gold (pure) 


2100 


1200.9 


.6949 


20380 


Iron, cast 


1900-2200 


450. 


.2604 


20000-35000 


Iron, wrought 


2700-2830 


480. 


.2779 


35000-60000 


Lead 


618 


709.7 


.4106 


1000-3000 


Mercury 


39 


846.8 


.4900 




Nickel 


2800 


548.7 


.3175 




Silver (pure) 


1800 


655.1 


.3791 


40000 


Steel 


2370-2685 


489.6 


.2834 


50000-120000 


Tin 


•475 


458.3 


.2652 


5000 


i Zinc 


780 


436.5 


.2526 


3500 



Note.— The wide variations in the tensile strength are due 
to the different forms and qualities of the metal tested. In 
the case of lead, the lowest strength is for lead cast in a mould, 
the highest for wire drawn after numerous workings of the 
metal. With steel it varies with the percentage of carbon 
used, which is varied according to the grade of steel required. 
Mercury becomes solid at 39 degrees below zero- 



USEFUL TABLES 



517 



Table No. 12.— Melting, Boiling and Freezing 

Points in Degrees Fahrenheit of 

Various Substances. 



Substance. 



Platinum 

Wrought-Iron 

Nickel 

Steel 

Cast-Iron 

Gold (pure) 

Copper 

Gun Metal 

Brass 

Silver (pure) 

Aluminum 



Melts at 
Degrees 



3080 
2830 
2800 
2600 
2200 
2100 
1930 
1960 
1900 
1800 
1140 



Substance. 



Antimony 

Zinc 

Lead 

Bismuth 

Tin 

Cadmium 

Sulphur 

Bees-Wax 

Spermaceti 

Tallow 

Mercury 



Melts at 
Degrees 



810 
780 
618 
476 
475 
442 
226 
151 
142 
72 
39 



Substance. 



Boils at 
Degrees 



Substance. 



Freezes at 
Degrees 



Mercury 660 

Linseed Oil 600 

Sulphuric Acid 590 

Oil of Turpentine 560 

Nitric Acid 242 

Sea Water 213 

Fresh Water 212 



Olive Oil 36 

Fresh Water 32 

Vinegar 28 

Sea Water 27X 

Turpentine 14 
Sulphuric Acid 1 



518 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 13. — Weight and Area 
Round Steel, and Circumference < 


of Square and 
df Round Bars. 


Thickness 

or 
Diameter 

in 
Inches. 


Weight 

of 
Square 
Bar • 
1 ft. long. 


Weight 

of 

Round 

Bar 

1 ft. long. 


Area of 
Square 
Bar in 
Square 
Inches. 


Area of 
Round 
Bar in 
Square 
Inches. 


Circumfer- 
ence of 
Round 
Bar in 
Inches. 


3-16 


.120 


.094 


.0352 


.0276 


.5890 


1-4 

5-16 

3-8 

7-16 


.213 
.332 

.478 
.651 


.167 
.261 
.375 
.511 


.0625 
.0977 
.1406 
.1914 


.0491 
.0767 
.1104 
.1503 


.7854 

.9817 

1.1781 

1.3744 


1-2 

9-16 

5-8 

11-16 


.851 
1.076 
1.329 
1.608 


.668 

.845 

1.044 

1.263 


.2500 
.3164 
.3906 

.4727 


.1963 

.2485 
.3068 
.3712 


1.5708 
1.7671 
1.9635 
2.1598 


3-4 
13-16 

7-8 
15-16 


1.914 
2.246 
2.605 
2.990 


1.503 
1.764 
2.046 

2.348 


.5625 
.6602 
.7656 

.8789 


.4418 
.5185 
.6013 
.6903 


2.3562 
2.5525 

2.7489 
2.9452 


1 

1-16 

1-8 

3-16 


3.402 
3.841 
4.306 
4.798 


2.672 
3.017 
3.382 
3.768 


1.0000 
1.1289 
1.2656 
1.4102 


.7854 

.8866 

.9940 

1.1075 


3.1416 
3.3379 
3.5343 
3.7306 


1-4 
5-16 

3-8 
7-16 


5.316 
5.861 
6.432 
7.030 


4.175 
4.603 
5.052 
5.521 


1.5625 

1.7227 
1.8906 
2.0664 


1.2272 
1.3530 
1.4849 
1.6230 


3.9270 
4.1233 
4.3197 
4.5160 


1-2 

9-16 

5-8 

11-16 


7.655 

8.306 
8.984 
9.688 


6.012 
6.524 
7.056 
7.609 


2.2500 
2.4414 
2.6406 

2.8477 


1.7671 
1.9175 
2.0739 
2.2365 


4.7124 
4.9087 
5.1051 
5.3014 


3-4 
13-16 

7-8 
15-16 


10.419 
11.177 
11.961 

12.772 


8.183 

8.778 

9.394 

10.031 


3.0625 

3.2852 
3.5156 
3.7539 


2.4053 

2.5802 
2.7612 
2.9483 


5.4978 
5.6941 
5.8905 
6.0868 



USEFUL TABLES 



519 



Table No. 13 Continued. — Weight and Area of 
Square and Round Steel, and Circumfer- 
ence of Round Bars. 



Thickness 

or 
Diameter 

in 
Inches. 



2 
1-16 
1-8 
3-16 

1-4 
5-16 
3-8 
7-16 

1-2 

9-16 

5-8 

11-16 

3-4 
13-16 

7-8 
15-16 

3 

1-16 

1-8 

3-16 

1-4 
5-16 

3-8 
7-16 

1-2 

9-16 

5-8 

11-16 

3-4 
13-16 

7-8 
15-16 

4 



Weight 

of 

Square 

Bar 

1 ft. long. 



13.61 
14.47 
15.36 

16.28 

17.22 
18.19 
19.19 
20.21 

21.26 
22.34 
23.44 
24.57 

25.73 
26.91 

28.12 
29.36 

30.62 
31.91 
33.23 
34.57 

35.94 
37.33 

38.75 
40.20 

41.68 
43.17 
44.71 
46.26 

47.84 
49.45 
51.09 
52.75 

54.45 



Weight 

ot 

Round 

Bar 

1 ft. long. 



10.69 
11.36 
12.06 
12.79 

13.52 
14.02 
15.07 

15.87 

16.70 
17.55 
18.41 
19.30 

20.21 
21.14 
22.09 
23.06 

24.05 
25.06 
26.10 
27.15 

28.23 
29.32 
30.43 
31.57 

32.74 
33.91 
35.12 
36.33 

37.57 

38.84 
40.13 
41.43 

42.77 



Area of 

Square 

Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 



4.0000 
4.2539 
4.5136 

4.7852 

5.0625 
5.3477 
5.6406 
5.9414 

6.2500 
6.5664 
6.8906 

7.2227 

7.5625 
7.9102 
8.2656 

8.6289 

9.0000 
9.3789 
9.7656 
10.160 

10.563 
10.973 
11.391 
11.816 

12.250 
12.691 
13.141 
13.598 

14.063 
14.535 
15.016 
15.504 

16.00 



Area of 

Round 

Bar 

in Square 

Inches. 



3.1416 
3.3410 
3.5466 
3.7583 

3.9651 
4.2000 
4.4301 
4.6664 

4.9087 
5.1572 

5.4119 

5.6727 

5.9396 
6.2126 
6.4918 

6.7771 

7.0686 
7.3662 
7.6699 

7.9798 

8.2958 
8.6179 
8.9462 

9.2806 

9.6211 
9.9678 
10.321 
10.680 

11.045 
11.416 
11.793 
12.177 

12.566 



Circumfer- 
ence of 
Round 
Bar in 
Inches. 



6.2832 
6.4795 
6.6759 

6.8722 

7.0686 
7.2649 
7.4613 
7.6576 

7.8540 
8.0503 
8.2467 
8.4430 

8.6394 

8.8357 
9.0321 

9.2284 

9.4248 
9.6211 
9.8175 
10.014 

10.210 
10.407 
10.603 
10.799 

10.996 
11.192 
11.388 
11.585 

11.781 
11.977 
12.174 
12.370 

12.566 



520 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 14. — Weight per Foot of Flat Bar 






Steel. 












W I D T E 


[ IN 


Inches. 


Thick- 
ness in 




































Inches 


1 


1 1-4 


1 1-2 


1 3-4 
1.11 


2 


2 1-4 


2 1-2 
1.59 


3 


3 1-2 


4 
2.55 


3-16 


.638 


.797 


.957 


1.28 


1.44 


1.91 


2.23 


1-4 


.850 


1.06 


1.28 


1.49 


1.70 


1.91 


2.12 


2.55 


2.98 


3.40 


5-16 


1.06 


1.33 


1.59 


1.86 


2.12 


2.39 


2.65 


3.19 


3.72 


4.25 


3-8 


1.28 


1.59 


1.92 


2.23 


2.55 


2.87 


3.19 


3.83 


4.47 


5.10 


7-16 


1.49 


1.86 


2.23 


2.60 


2.98 


3.35 


3.73 


4.46 


5.20 


5.95 


1-2 


1.70 


2.12 


2.55 


2.98 


3.40 


3.83 


4.25 


5.10 


5.95 


6.80 


9-16 


1.92 


2.39 


2.87 


3.35 


3.83 


4.30 


4.78 


5.74 


6.70 


7.65 


5-8 


2.12 


2.65 


3.19 


3.72 


4.25 


4.78 


I 5.31 


6.38 


[ 7.44 


8.50 


11-16 


2.34 


2.92 


3.51 


4.09 


4.67 


5.26 


5.84 


7.02 


8.18 


9.35 


3-4 


2.55 


3.19 


3.83 


4.47 


5.10 


5.75 


6.38 


7.65 


8.93 


10.20 


13-16 


2.76 


3.45 


4.14 


4.84 


5.53 


6.21 


6.90 


8.29 


9.67 


11.05 


7-8 


2.98 


3.72 


4.47 


5.20 


5.95 


6.69 


7.44 


8.93 


10.41 


11,90 


15-16 


3.19 


3.99 


4.78 


5.58 


6.38 


7.18 


7.97 


9.57 


11.16 


12.75 


1 


3.40 


4.25 


5.10 


5.95 


6.80 


7.65 


8.50 


10.20 


11.90 


13.60 


1 1-16 


3.61 


4.52 


5.42 


6.32 


7.22 


8.13 


9.03 


10.84 


12.15 


14.45 


1 1-8 


3.83 


4.78 


5.74 


6.70 


7.65 


8.61 


9.57 


11.48 


13.39 


15.30 


1 3-16 


4.04 


5.05 


6.06 


7.07 


8.08 


9.09 


10.10 


12.12 


14.13 


16.15 


1 1-4 


4.25 


5.31 


6.38 


7.44 


8.50 


9.57 


10.63 


12.75 


14.87 


17.00 


1 5-16 


4.46 


5.58 


6.69 


7.81 


8.93 


10.04 


11.16 


13.39 


15.62 


17.85 


1 3-8 


4.67 


5.84 


7.02 


8.18 


9.35 


10.52 


11.69 


14.03 


16.36 


18.70 


1 7-16 


4.89 


6.11 


7.34 


8.56 


9.78 


11.00 


12.22 


14.66 


17.10 


19.55 


1 1-2 


5.10 


6.38 


7.65 


8.93 


10.20 


11.48 


12.75 


15.30 


17.85 


20.40 


1 9-16 


5.32 


6.64 


7.97 


9.30 


10.63 


11.65 


13.28 


15.94 


18.60 


21.25 


1 5-8 


5.52 


6.90 


8.29 


9.67 


11.05 


12.43 


13.81 


16.58 


19.34 


22.10 


1 11-16 


5.74 


7.17 


8.61 


10.04 


11.47 


12.91 


14.34 


17.22 


20.08 


22.95 


1 3-4 


5.95 


7.44 


8.93 


10.42 


11.90 


13.40 


14.88 


17.85 


20.83 


23.80 


1 13-16 


6.16 


7.70 


9.24 


10.79 


12.33 


13.86 


15.40 


18.49 


21.57 


24.65 


1 7-8 


6.38 


7.97 


9.57 


11.15 


12.75 


14.34 


15.94 


19.13 


22.31 


25.50 


1 15-16 


6.59 


8.24 


9.88 


11.53 


13.18 


14.83 


16.47 


19.77 


23.06 


26.35 


2 


6.80 


8.50 


10.20 


11.90 


13.60 


15.30 


17.00 


20.40 


23.80 


27.20 



USEFUL TABLES 



521 



Table No. 15. — Weight per Foot of Flat Bar 


Iron. 




WIDTH IN INCHES. 


ness. 


1 

.42 


1% 


1% 


1% 


2 


2% 


2X 


3 


SX 


4 


.53 


.63 


.74 


.84 


.95 


1.05 


1.26 


1.47 


1.68 


% 


.84 


1.05 


1.26 


1.47 


1.68 


1.90 


2.11 


2.53 


2.95 


3.37 


% 


1.26 


1.58 


1.90 


2.21 


2.53 


2.84 


3.16 


3.79 


4.42 


5.05 


% 


1.68 


2.11 


2.53 


2.95 


3.37 


3.79 


4.21 


5.05 


5.89 


6.74 


% 


2.11 


2.63 


3.16 


3.68 


4.21 


4.74 


5.26 


6.32 


7.37 


8.42 


% 


2.53 


3.16 


3.79 


4.42 


5.05 


5.68 


6.32 


7.58 


8.84 


10.10 


% 


2.95 


3.68 


4.42 


5.16 


5.89 


6.83 


7.37 


8.84 


10.32 


11.79 


1 


3.37 


4.21 


5.05 


5.89 


6.74 


7.58 


8.42 


10.10 


11.79 


13.47 



Plate iron weighs 40 pounds per square foot, 1 inch thick. 
Hence, a square foot weighs 10 pounds if X inch thick, 
5 pounds if % inch thick, etc. 

To find the weight of round iron, per square foot in length: 
Square the diameter, expressed in quarter inches and divide 
by 6. 

Thus, a 1/i inch rod weighs 5 X 5 = 25, 25 -5- 6 = 4| pounds 
per foot. 

To find the weight of square or flat iron, per yard in length: 
ultiply the area of the cross section by 10. 

Thus, a bar 2 by % has an area of % of a square inch, and 
consequently weighs % X 10= 7/i pounds per yard. 

To find the tensile strength of round iron: Square the 
diameter, expressed in quarters of an inch, the result will be 
its approximate strength in tons. 

Thus, a rod 1 quarter inch in diameter will sustain 1 ton; 
2 quarters, 4 tons; 3 quarters 9 tons; 4 quarters, or 1 inch, 
16 tons. 

If the rod is square, and of the same diameter as the round 
bar, it will carry about 25 per cent more, hence, a bar 1 inch- 
square will sustain about 20 tons. 



: 



522 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 16. — Wire Gauges 


in Use in the United 








S 


TATES. 








«H 6 

O 5U 


o3 

^ o 
PQ 


o . 


- 03 

«g ° o3 

*** 

£5^ go 
02 £3 a> 
c3 5 « 


3 = 

f-i c3 


"3 


•a 

u 

03 . 

IS 

p 


O b£ 

<D 03 
&® 

Is 


000000 








.464 




.46875 


000000 


00000 








;432 




.4375 


00000 


0000 


.46 


.454 


.3938 


.400 




.40625 


0000 


000 


.40964 


.425 


.3625 


.372 




.375 


000 


00 


.3648 


.38 


.3310 


.348 




.34375 


00 





.32486 


.34 


.3065 


.324 




.3125 





1 


.2893 


.3 


.2830 


.300 


.227 


.28125 


1 


2 


.25763 


.284 


.2625 


.276 


.219 


.265625 


2 


3 


.22942 


.259 


.2437 


.252 


.212 


.25 


3 


4 


.20431 


.238 


.2253 


.232 


.207 


.234375 


4 


5 


.18194 


.22 


.2070 


.212 


.204 


.21875 


5 


6 


.16202 


.203 


.1920 


.192 


.201 


.203125 


6 


7 


.14428 


.18 


.1770 


,176 


.199 


.1875 


7 


8 


.12849 


.165 


.1620 


.160 


.197 


.171875 


8 


9 


.11443 


.148 


.1483 


.144 


.194 


.15625 


9 


10 


.10189 


.134 


.1350 


.128 


.191 


.140625 


10 


11 


.090742 


.12 


.1205 


.116 


.188 


.125 


11 


12 


.080808 


.109 


.1055 


.104 


.185 


.109375 


12 


13 


.071961 


.095 


.0915 


.092 


.182 


.09375 


13 


14 


.064084 


.083 


.0800 


.080 


.180 


.078125 


14 


15 


.057068 


.072 


.0720 


.072 


.178 


.0703125 


15 


16 


.05082 


.065 


.0625 


.064 


.175 


.0625 


16 


17 


.045257 


.058 


.0540 


.056 


.172 


.05625 


17 



USEFUL TABLES 



523 



Table No. 


16 -Continued. — Wire Gauges in 


Use 






in the United States 






O be 

<U 03 
§^ 


O 03 


o . 

S3 
pq 


r as 

£%% 

A^ an 
02 a o 
53 £ o 


6 

^ o3 

5 


GO 


m^ - 


O c0) 

(X) 03 


18 


.040303 


.049 


.0475 


.048 


.168 


,05 


18 


19 


.03589 


.042 


.0410 


.040 


.164 


.04375 


19 


20 


.031961 


.035 


.0348 J. 036 


.161 


.0375 


20 


21 


.028462 


.032 


.03175.032 


.157 


.034375 


21 


22 


.025347 


.028 


.0286 


.028 


.155 


.03125 


22 


23 


.022571 


.025 


.0258 


.024 


.153 


.028125 


23 


24 


.0201 


.022 


.0230 


.022 


.151 


.025 


24 


25 


.0179 


.02 


.0204 


.020 


.148 


.021875 


25 


26 


.01594 


.018 


.0181 


.018 


.146 


.01875 


26 


27 


.014195 


.016 


,0173 


.0164 


.143 


.0171875 


27 


28 


.012641 


.014 


.0162 


.0149 


.139 


.015625 


28 


29 


.011257 


.013 


' .0150 


.0136 


.134 


.0140625 


29 


30 


.010025 


.012 


.0140 


.0124 


.127 


.0125 


30 


31 


.008928 


.01 


.0132 


.0116 


.120 


,0109375 


31 


32 


.00795 


.009 


.0128 


.0108 


.115 


.01015625 


32 


33 


.00708 


.008 


.0118 


.0100 


.112 


.009375 


33 


34 


.006304 


.007 


.0104 


.0092 


.110 


.00859375 


34 


35 


.005614 


.005 


.0095 


.0084 


.108 


.0078125 


35 


36 


.005 


.004 


.0090 


.0076 


.106 


.00703125 


36 


37 


.004453 






.0068 


.103 


.006640625 


37 


38 


.003965 






.0060 


.101 


.00625 


38 


39 


.003531 






.0052 


.099 




39 


40 


.003144 






.0048 


.097 




40 



524 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 17. — Weight of Sheet Iron and Steel 
per Square Foot. 



Thickness by 
Birmingham Gauge. 


Thickness by American 
(Brown & Sharpe's) Gauge. 






Weight in 
Pounds. 






Weight in 
Pounds. 


No. of 
Gauge. 


Thickness 
in Inches. 




No. of 
Gauge. 


Thickness 
in Inches. 














Iron. 


Steel. 






Iron 


Steel. 


0000 


.454 


18.16 


18.52 


0000 


.46 


18.40 


18.77 


000 


.425 


17.00 


17.34 


000 


.4096 


16.38 


16.71 


00 


.38 


15.20 


15.30 


00 


.3648 


14.59 


14.88 





.34 


13.60 


13.87 





.3249 


13.00 


13.26 


1 


.3 


12.00 


12.24 


1 


.2893 


11.57 


11.80 


2 


.284 


11.36 


11.59 


2 


.2576 


10.30 


10.51 


3 


.259 


10.36 


10.57 


3 


.2294 


9.18 


9.36 


4 


.238 


9.52 


9.71 


4 


2043 


8.17 


8.34 


5 


.22 


8.80 


8.98 


5 


.1819 


7.28 


7.42 


6 


.203 


8.12 


8.28 


6 


.1620 


6.48 


6.61 


7 


.18 


7.20 


7.34 


7 


.1443 


5.77 


5.89 


8 


.165 


6.60 


6.73 


8 


.1285 


5.14 


5.24 


9 


.148 


5.92 


6.04 


9 


.1144 


4.58 


4.67 


10 


.134 


5.36 


5.47 


10 


.1019 


4.08 


4.16 


11 


.12 


4.80 


4.90 


11 


.0907 


3.63 


3.70 


12 


.109 


4.36 


4.45 


12 


.0808 


3.23 


3.30 


13 


.095 


3.80 


3.88 


13 


.0720 


2.88 


2.94 


14 


,083 


3.32 


3.39 


14 


.0641 


2.56 


2.62 


15 


.072 


2.88 


2.94 


15 


.0571 


2.28 


2.33 


16 


.065 


2.60 


2.65 


16 


.0508 


2.03 


2.07 


17 


.058 


2.32 


2.37 


17 


.0453 


1.81 


1.85 


18 


.049 


1.96 


2.00 


18 


.0403 


1.61 


1.64 


19 


.042 


1.68 


1.71 


19 


.0359 


1.44 


1.46 


20 


.035 


1.40 


1.43 


20 


.0320 


1,28 


1.31 



USEFUL TABLES 



525 



Table No. 17 Continued. 


— Weight of Sheet Iron 




AND 


Steel Per Square Foot. 


Thickness by , 
Birmingham Gauge. 


Thickness by American 
(Brown and Sharpe's). Gauge. 






Weight in 
Pounds . 






Weight in 
Pounds. 


No. of 
Gauge. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 




No. of 
Gauge. 


Thickness in 
Inches. 
















Iron. 


Steel. 






Iron, 


Steel. 


21 


.032 


1.28 


1.31 


21 


.0285 


1.14 


1.16 


22 


.028 


1.12 


1.14 


22 


.0253 


1.01 


1.03 


23 


.025 


1.00 


1.02 


23 


.0226 


.904 


.922 


24 


.022 


.88 


..898 


24 


.0201 


.804 


.820 


25 


.02 


.80 


.816 


25 


.0179 


.716 


.730 


26 


.018 


.72 


.734 


26 


.0159 


.636 


.649 


27 


.016 


.64 


.653 


27 


.0142 


.568 


.579 


28 


.014 


.56 


.571 


28 


.0126 


.504 


.514 


29 


.013 


.52 


.530 


29 


.0113 


.452 


.461 


30 


.012 


.48 


.490 


30 


.0100 


.400 


.408 


31 


.01 


.40 


.408 


31 


.0089 


.356 


.363 


32 


.009 


.36 


.367 


32 


.0080 


.320 


.326 


33 


.008 


.32 


.326 


33 


.0071 


.284 


.290 


34 


.007 


.28 


.286 


34 


.0063 


.252 


.257 


35 


.005 


.20 


.204 


35 


.0056 


.224 


.228 





Iron. 


Steel. 


Specific gravity. 


7.7 


7.854 


Weight per cubic foot, 


480 


489.6 


Weight per cubic inch, 


.2778 


.2833 



As there are many gauges in use differing from each other 
orders for sheets should always state the weight per square 
foot, or the thickness in thousands of an inch. 



526 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 18. — Showing Zinc Gauge as Compared 


With Other # Gauges. 


Zinc Gauge Can Be Maintained Only Approximately, 


Matthiessen & Hegeler 


American or 


Stubbs 


United States Standard 


Zinc Company 


Brown & Sharpe 








Square 


Thickness 




Approx. 




Approx. 




Approx. 


No. 


Foot in 


m 


No. 


Thickness 


No. 


Thickn's 


Number 


Thickness 




Pounds 


Inches 




in Inches 




in Inches 


in Inches 


3 


.22 


.006 


34 


.0063 


35 


.005 


38 
37 


.0062 
.0066 








33 


.0070 


34 


.007 


36 


.0070 


4 


.30 


.008 


32 
31 


.0079 
.0089 


33 

*32 


.008 
.*609 


35 
34 
33 


.0078 
.0086 
.0093 


5 


.37 


.010 


30 


.0100 


31 


.010 


32 


.0101 








29 


.0112 


30 


.012 


31 


.0109 


6 


.45 


.012 


28 


.0126 


29 


.013 


30 


.0125 


7 


.52 


.014 


27 


.0141 


28 


.014 


29 


.0140 


8 


.60 


.016 


26 


.0159 


27 


.016 


28 


.0156 








25 


.0179 


26 


.018 


27 


.0171 


9 


.67 


.018 


24 


.0201 


25 


.020 


26 


.0187 


10 


.75 


.020 


23 


.0225 


24 


.022 


25 


.0218 


11 


.90 


.024 


22 


.0253 


23 


.025 


24 


.0250 


12 


1.05 


.028 


21 


.0284 


22 


.028 


23 


.0281 


13 


1.20 


.032 


20 


.0319 


21 


.032 


22 


.0312 


14 


1.35 


.036 


19 


.0353 


20 


.035 


21 


.0343 


15 


1.50 


.040 


18 


.0403 






20 


.0375 


16 


1.68 


.045 


17 


.0452 


19 


.042. 


19 


.0437 


17 


1.87 


.050 


16 


.0508 


18 


.049 


18 


.0500 


18 


2.06 


.055 


15 


.0570 


17 


.058 


17 


.0562 


19 


2.25 


.060 


14 


.0640 


16 


.065 


16 


.0625 


20 


2.62 


.070 


13 


.0719 


15 


.072 


15 


.0703 


21 


3.00 


.080 


12 


.0808 


14 


.083 


14 


.0781 


22 


3.37 


.090 


11 


.0907 


13 


.095 


13 


.0937 


23 


3.75 


.100 


10 


.1018 


12 


.109 


12 


.1093 


24 


4.70 


. .125 


9 


.1144 


11 


.120 


11 


.1250 








8 


.1284 


10 


.134 


10 


.1406 








7 


.1442 


9 


.148 


9 


.1562 








6 


.1620 


8 


.165 


8 


.1718 








5 


.1819 


7 


.180 


7 


.1875 








4 


.2043 


6 


.203 


6 


.2031 








3 


.2294 


5 

4 


.220 
.238 


5 
4 


.2187 
.2343 


25 


9.40 


.250 


2 


.2576 


3 

2 


.259 

.284 


3 

2 


.2500 
.2656 








1 


.2893 


1 


.300 


1 


.2812 











.3249 





.340 





.3125 


26 


14.00 


.375 


000 


.4096 


000 


.425 


000 


.3750 


27 


18.75 


.500 










0000000 


.5000 


28 


37.50 


1.000 


... 













USEFUL TABLES 



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528 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 20. — Weights and Measures. 



troy. 

24 grains (gr.) 1 pennyweight — dwt* 

20 dwt 1 ounce — oz. 

3.2 grains 1 carat, diamond wt. 

By this weight gold, silver and jewels only are weighed. The 
ounce and pound in this are the same as in apothecaries' weight. 

APOTHECARIES'. 

20 grains 1 scruple I 8 drs 1 ounce 

3 scruples. 1 drachm I 12 oz 1 pound 

AVOIRDUPOIS. 

16 drachms 1 ounce I 4 qrs 100 weight — cwt. 

16 ounces 1 pound 20 hundredweight 1 ton 

25 lbs 1 quarter — qr. | 

5,760 grains apothecaries' or troy weight 1 lb. 

7,000 grains avoirdupois weight 1 lb. 

Therefore, 144 lbs. avoirdupois equal 175 lbs. apothecaries' or 
troy. 

LIQUIDS. 

1 gallon oil weighs 7.32 lbs. avoirdupois 

1 gallon distilled water 8.33 lbs. 

1 gallon sea water 8.55 lbs. 

1 gallon proof spirits 7.68 lbs. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 



Iron, Lead, Etc. 

14 pounds 1 stone 

2iy 2 stones 1 pig 

8 pigs 1 fother 



Beef, Pork, Etc. 

200 pounds 1 barrel 

196 lbs. (flour) 1 barrel 

100 lbs. (fish) . 1 quintal 



DRY. 

2 pints 1 quart — qt. I 4 pecks 1 bushel — bu. 

8 quarts 1 peck — pk. I 36 bushels 1 chaldron 

LIQUID OR WINE. 



4 gills 1 pint — pt. 

2 pints 1 quart — qt. 

4 quarts 1 gallon — gal. 

31% gal .1 barrel— bbl. 

2 bbls 1 hogshead — hhd. 



U. S. Standard gallon 

231 cubic inches 

Beer gal. ..... .282 cubic inches 

36 beer gallons 1 barrel 



TIME. 



60 seconds 1 minute 

60 minutes 1 hour 

24 hours 1 day 

7 days 1 week 

4 weeks 1 lunar month 

28, 29, 30 or 31 days 

1 calendar month 



30 days (in computing in- 
terest) 1 month 

52 weeks and 1 day or 12 

cal. months 1 year 

365 days, 5 h., 48 m. and 49 

seconds 1 solar year 



CIRCULAR. 



60 seconds 1 minute 

60 minutes 1 degree 

30 degrees 1 sign 



90 degrees 1 quadrant 

4 quadrants or 360 degrees 
1 circle 



USEFUL TABLES 



529 



Table No. 21. — Tin and Sheet Iron Workers' 




Circumference Table. 






To Increase a Given Diameter. 


. - 


For % inch, add to its circumference, % and 1/64 


" % " " " % " 1/32 


" % " " " iy 2 " 1/16 


" 1 


" " , " 3y 8 




The following measures do not allow for seams, which are 


different on 


sheet iron. 




Dia. Cir. 


Dia. 


Cir. 


Dia. 


Cir. 


Dia. 


Cir. 


Dia. 


Cir. 


% 


1* 


6 


18% 


12 


37% 


18 


56% 


24% 


77% 


% 


HI 


% 


19% 


% 


38% 


% 


57% 


25 


78* 


% 


2J1 


y 2 


2oy 2 


y 2 


39% 


% 


58% 


% 


80* 


% 


2% 


% 


21% 


% 


40% 


% 


59 


26 


82 


i 


3% 


7 


?2* 


13 


41 


19 


59% 


% 


83* 


% 


3% 


% 


2211 


% 


41% 


% 


60% 


27 


85% 


% 


4* 


y 2 


23% 


y 2 


42* 


% 


61% 


% 


86* 


% 


5ft 


% 


24% 


% 


43* 


% 


62% 


28 


88% 


2 


6ft 


8 


25* 


14 


44% 


20 


63 


% 


8911 


% 


7% 


% 


26 


% 


44% 


% 


63% 


29 


91% 


% 


7* 


y 2 


26% 


y 2 


4594 


% 


64* 


% 


92* 


% 


8* 


% 


27* 


% 


46% 


% 


65* 


30 


94% 


3 


9% 


9 


28* 


15 


47% 


21 


66% 


% 


96* 


% 


10% 


% 


29% 


% 


48 


% 


66% 


31 


97% 


% 


11* 


y 2 


29% 


y 2 


48* 


% 


67% 


% 


98ft 


% 


1111 


% 


30* 


% 


49ft 


% 


68% 


32 


100% 


4 


12% 


10 


31* 


16 


50% 


22 


69% 


% 


101ft 


% 


13% 


% 


32% 


% 


51% 


% 


70 


33 


103% 


% 


14* 


y 2 


33x5 


y 2 


5111 


% 


70H 


% 


104ft 


% 


14* 


% 


33+i 


% 


52* 


% 


71* 


34 


107 


5 


15% 


ii 


34% 


17 


53% 


23 


723/ 8 


% 


108ft 


% 


16% 


% 


35% 


% 


54% 


% 


73% 


35 


109% 


% 


17* 


y 2 


36* 


y 2 


55 iV 


% 


73* 


% 


lion 


;% 


18* 


% 


361| 


% 


55* 


% 


74% 


36 


113% 














24 


75 ft 




Tor Com) 


mon English Sheet Iron Nos. 25 and 26, the 


above 


table will a 
add % inch 


pply as it is; but for every fourth number he 
to the above measure. For Russia Sheet Iro 


avier, 
n add 


y 8 inch to ( 


ivery fourth number heavier than No. 10. 





530 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 22. — Table of Diameters, Circumferences, 

and Areas of Circles. 

And the Contents in Gallons at One Foot in Depth. 

area in feet 


Dia. 


Circ. 


1 
Area 1 
in ft. 1 


Gallons 


Dia. 


Circ. 


Area | Gallons 
in ft. | 


Ft.In.l 
1 

1 1 
1 2 
1 3 
1 4| 


Ft. 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 


In. 

1% 
4% 
8 
11 

2% 


I 

.7854 | 

.9217 

1.0690 

1.2271 

1.3962 


1 ft. depth 

5.8735 
6.8928 
7.9944 
9.1766 
10.4413 


Ft.In. 
4 8 
4 9 
4 10 
4 11 
5 


Ft. In. 

14 7% 

14 11 

15 2% 
15 5% 

15 8y 2 


17.1041 
17.7205 
18.3476 

18.9858 
19.6350 


1 ft.deptfc 
127.9112 
132.5209 
137.2105 
142.0582 
146.8384 


1 5 
1 6 

1 7 
1 8 
1 9 


4 

4 
4 
5 

5 


5% 

8% 

11% 

2% 

5% 


1.5761 
1.7617 
1.9689 
2.1816 
2.4052 


11.7866 
13.2150 
14.7241 
16.3148 
17.9870 


5 1 
5 2 
5 3 
5 4 
5 5 


15 11% 

16 2% 
16 53/ 4 

16 9 

17 0% 


20.2947 
20.9656 
21.6475 
22.3400 
23.0437 


151.7718 
156.7891 
161.8886 
167.0674 
172.3300 


1 10 

1 11 
2 

2 1 

2 2 


5 
6 
6 
6 
6 


9 

2V 4 
3% 
6V 2 
9% 


2.6398 
2.8852 
3.1416 
3.4087 
3.6869 


19.7414 
21.4830 
23.4940 
25.4916 

27.5720 


5 6 
5 7 
5 8 
5 9 
5 10 


17 3% 

17 6% 

17 9% 

18 0% 

18 3% 


23.7583 
24.4835 
25.2199 
25.9672 
26.7251 


177.6740 
183.0973 
188.6045 
194.1930 
199.8610 


2 3 

2 4 
2 5 
2 6 

2 7 


7 03/ 4 
7 3% 
7 7 

7 io% 

8 1% 


3.9760 
4.2760 
4.5869 
4.9087 
5.2413 


29.7340 
32.6976 
34.3027 
36.7092 
39.1964 


5 11 
6 

6 3 
6 6 
6 9 


18 7% 

18 10 y 8 

19 m 

20 4% 

21 2% 


27.4943 
28.2744 
30.6796 
33.1831 

35.7847 


205.6133 
211.4472 
229.4342 
248.1564 
267.6122 


2 8 
2 9 
2 10 
2 11 
3 


8 4% 
8 7% 

8 10% 

9 1% 
9 5 


5.5850 
5.9395 
6.3049 
6.6813 
7.0686 


41.7668 
44.4179 
47.1505 
49.9654 

52.8618 


7 

7 3 
7 6 

7 9 
8 


21 11% 

22 9y 4 

23 6% 

24 4% 

25 iy 2 


38.4846 
41.2825 
44.1787 
47.1730 
50.2656 


287.8230 
308.7270 
330.3859 
352.7665 
| 375.9062 


3 1 
3 2 
3 3 
3 4 
3 5 


9 8V 4 

9 11% 

10 2% 

10 5% 

10 8% 


7.4666 
7.8757 
8.2957 
8.7265 
9.1683 


55.8382 
58.8976 
62.0386 
65.2602 
68.5192 


8 3 
8 6 

8 9 
9 

9 3 


25 11 

26 8% 

27 5% 

28 3% 

29 0% 


53.4562 
56.7451 
60.1321 
63.6174 

67.2007 


399.7668 
424.3625 
449.2118 
475.7563 
502.5536 


3 6 
3 7 
3 8 
3 9 
3 10 


10 
11 
11 
11 
12 


11% 
3 

m 

9% 

oy 2 


9.6211 
10.0846 
10.5591 
11.0446 
11.5409 


73.1504 
75.4166 
78.9652 
82.5959 
86.3074 


9 6 
9 9 
10 

10 3 
10 6 


29 10% 

30 IV2 

31 5 

32 2% 
32 11% 


70.8823 
74.6620 
78.5400 
82.5160 
86.5903 


530.0861 
558.3522 
587.3534 
617.0876 
647.5568 


3 11 
4 

4 1 
4 2 
4 3 


12 
12 
12 
13 
13 


3% 
6% 
9% 
1 

4% 


12.0481 
12.5664 
13.0952 
13.6353 
14.1862 


90.1004 

93.9754 

97.9310 

101.9701 

103.0300 


10 9 
11 

11 3 
11 6 
11 9 


33 9% 

34 6% 

35 4% 

36 iy 2 

36 10% 


90.7627 

95.0334 

99.4021 

103.8691 

108.4342 


678.2797 
710.6977 
743.3686 
776.7746 
810.9143 


4 4 
4 5 
4 6 
4 7 


13 
13 
14 
14 


7V 4 

io y 2 
i% 

4% 


14.7479 
15.3206 
15.9043 
16.4986 


| 110.2907 
114.5735 
118.9386 

| 123.3830 


12 

12 3 
12 6 
12 9 


37 8% 

38 5 3 / 4 

39 3^4 

40 0% 


113.0976 
117.8590 
122.7187 
127.6765 


848.1890 

881.3966 

917.7395 

I 954.8159 


T 


hese tabl 


es are tht 


wretically correct, but variations must be 
expected in practice. 



USEFUL TABLES 



531 



Table No. 23.— Standard United States Gauge of 


Sheet Iron. 


Adopted by the Association of Iron and Steel Sheet Manufacturers, July 1st, 1893. 


No. of 
Gauge. 


Weight 

per Square 

Foot in 

Pounds 


Weight 

per Square 

Foot in 

Ounces 


Approximate 

Thickness 
in Fractions 


Approximate 
Thickness in 
Decimal Parts 




Avoirdupois. 


Avoirdupois 


of an Inch. 


of an Inch 


0000000 


20.00 


320 


1-2 


.5 


000000 


18.75 


300 


15-32 


.46875 


00000 


17.50 


280 


7-16 


.4375 


0000 


16.25 


260 


13-32 


.40625 


000 


15. 


240 


3-8 


.375 


00 


13.75 


220 


11-32 


.34375 





12.50 


200 


5-16 


.3125 


1 


11.25 


180 


9-32 


.28125 


2 


10.625 


170 


17-64 


.265625 


3 


10. 


160 


1-4 


.25 


4 


9.375 


150 


15-64 


.234375 


5 


8.75 


140 


7-32 


.21875 


6 


8.125 


130 


13-64 


.203125 


7 


7.5 


120 


3-16 


.1875 


8 


6.875 


110 


11-64 


.171875 


9 


6.25 


100 


5-32 


.15625 


10 


5.625 


90 


9-64 


.140625 


11 


5. 


80 


1-8 


.125 


12 


4.375 


70 


7-64 


.109375 


13 


3.75 


60 


3-32 


.09375 


14 


3.125 


50 


5-64 


.078125 


15 


2.8125 


45 


9-128 


.0703125 


16 


2.5 


40 


1-16 


.0625 


17 


2.25 


36 


9-160 


.05625 


18 


2. 


32 


1-20 


.05 


19 


1.75 


28 


7-160 


.04375 


20 


1.50 


24 


3-80 


.0375 


21 


1.375 


22 


11-320 


.034375 


22 


1.25 


20 


1-32 


.03125 


23 


1.125 


18 


9-320 


.028125 


24 


1. 


16 


1-40 


.025 


25 


.875 


14 


7-320 


.021875 


26 


.75 


12 


3-160 


.01875 


27 


.6875 


11 


11-640 


.0171875 


28 


.625 


10 


1-64 


.015625 


29 


.5625 


9 


9-640 


.0140625 


30 


.5 


8 


1-80 


.0125 


31 


.4375 


7 


7-640 


.0109375 


32 


.40625 


6% 


13-1280 


.01015625 


33 


.375 


6 


3-320 . 


.009375 


34 


.34375 


5y 2 


11-1280 


.00859375 


35 


.3125 


5 


5-640 


.0078125 


36 


.28125 


4% 


9-1280 


.00703125 


37 


.265625 


4% 


17-2560 


.006640625 


38 


.25 4 


1-160 


.00625 


NOTE.— This table gives gauge numbers and approximate thickness in inches and 


weights per square foot of uncoated sheets. Galvanized sheets weigh 2V 2 ounces 


more per square foot than uncoated sheets of the same gauge. 


For the purpose of securing uniformity of gauge throughout the United States, 


Congress, under date of March 3rd, 1893, adopted the above as the legal standard for 


determining the thickness of uncoated iron and steel sheets, allowing a variation of 


2V 2 per cent either above or below for practical use and application. 



532 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 24 




Net Weight Per Box Tin Plates 
Basis, 10x14, 225 Sheets; or, 14x20, 112 Sheets 






Trade Term 


80 
lb. 


85 
lb. 


90 
lb. 


95 
lb. 


100 
lb. 


IC 


1XL 


IX 


IXX 


IXXX 


IXXXX 


Approximate 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


1*0. 


No. 


w 


No. 


Wire Gauge . . . 


33 


32 


31 


31 


30 


30 


28 


28 


27 


26 


25 


Weight, per 
























Box, lbs 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


107 


128 


135 


155 


175 


195 


Size of 






Sheets 


Sheets per box 




10 xl4 


225 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


107 


128 


135 


155 


175 


195 


14x20 


112 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


107 


128 


135 


155 


175 


195 


20x28 


112 


160 


170 


180 


190 


200 


214 


256 


270 


310 


350 


390 


10 x20 


225 


114 


121 


129 


136 


143 


153 


183 


193 


221 


250 


279 


11 x22 


225 


138 


147 


156 


164 


172 


184 


222 


234 


268 


302 


337 


111x23 


225 


151 


161 


170 


179 


189 


202 


242 


255 


293 


331 


368 


12 x24 


112 


82 


87 


93 


98 


103 


110 


132 


139 


159 


180 


201 


13 xl3 


225 


97 


103 


109 


115 


121 


129 


154 


163 


187 


211 


235 


13 x26 


112 


97 


103 


109 


115 


121 


129 


154 


163 


187 


211 


235 


14 x28 


112 


112 


119 


126 


133 


140 


150 


179 


189 


217 


245 


273 


15x15 


225 


129 


137 


145 


153 


161 


172 


206 


217 


249 


281 


313 


16x16 


225 


146 


155 


165 


174 


183 


196 


234 


247 


283 


320 


357 


17x17 


225 


165 


175 


186 


196 


206 


221 


264 


279 


320 


361 


403 


18x18 


112 


93 


98 


104 


110 


116 


124 


148 


156 


179 


202 


226 


19x19 


112 


103 


110 


116 


122 


129 


138 


165 


174 


200 


226 


251 


20 x20 


112 


114 


121 


129 


136 


143 


153 


183 


193 


221 


250 


279 


21 x21 


112 


126 


134 


142 


150 


158 


169 


202 


213 


244 


276 


307 


22 x22 


112 


138 


147 


156 


164 


172 


184 


221 


234 


268 


202 


337 


23 x23 


112 


151 


161 


170 


179 


189 


202 


242 


255 


295 


333 


370 


24 x24 


112 


164 


175 


185 


195 


204 


220 


263 


278 


320 


360 


401 


26 x26 


112 


193 


205 


217 


229 


241 


258 


309 


326 


374 


422 


471 


13|xl9J 


112 


75 


80 


85 


89 


94 


100 












14 x21 


112 


84 


89 


95 


100 


105 


112 












14 x22 


112 


88 


94 


99 


105 


110 


118 












16x20 


112 


91 


97 


103 


109 


114 


122 












14 x31 


112 


124 


132 


140 


147 


155 


166 












15±x23 


112 


102 


108 


115 


121 


127 


136 












Approximate 














Wire 




DC 


DX 


DXX 


DXXX 


DXXXX 


Gauge D 




No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


Plates 




28 


26 


24 


23 


22 


12 J x 17 
17 x25 
15 x21 


100 Sheets per box, weight 
50 " " " 
100 " " " 




94 

94 

140 


122 
122 
181 


142 
142 
211 


162 
162 
241 


182 
184 
271 






TAGGERS 


TRUNK IRON 










Approx. 








A 


aprox . 


Gauge 


Size 


Sheets 


Wt. Box 


Gauge 


Size 


Sheets 


W1 


. Box 


34 


14x20 


150 


112 lbs. 


30 


20x40 


79 


2 


24 lbs. 


36 


" 


180 


112 " 


32 


" 


79 


1 


80 " 


37 


" 


200 


112 M 


34 


" 


79 


1 


60 " 


38 


" 


225 


112 " 


36 


M 


90 


1 


50 " 


34 


20x28 


150 


224 " 


30 


20 x 36 


88 


2 


24 " 


36 


" 


180 


224 " 


32 


" 


88 


1 


30 " 


37 


" 


200 


224 " 


34 


•* 


88 


1 


50 " 


38 




225 


224 ** 













USEFUL TABLES 



533 



Table No. 25.— Weights of Sheet Copper Per Square 
Foot, and Thickness Per Stubbs' Gauge. 

Rolled Copper has specific gravity of 8.93. One cubic foot 
weighs 558 125/1000 lbs. 



Stubbs' 


Thickness 


1 Weight 




in Decimal 


per 


Gauge 


Parts of 


Square 


1 inch 


Foot 






Oz. 





.340 


253 


1 


.300 


223 


2 


.284 


211 


3 


.259 


193 


4 


.238 


177 


5 


.220 


164 


6 


.203 


151 


7 


.180 


134 


8 


.165 


123 


9 


.148 


110 


10 


.134 


100 


11 


.120 


89 


12 


.109 


81 


13 


.095 


70 


14 


.083 


64 


15 


.072 


56 


16 


.065 


48 


18 


.049 


40 


19 


.042 


32 


21 


.032 


24 


22 


.028 


20 


23 


.025 


18 


24 


.022 


16 


26 


.018 


14 


27 


.016 


12 


29 


.013 


10 


31 


.010 


8 


33 


.008 


6 


35 


.005 


4 



Weight 

of Sheet 

14x48 

inches 



Lbs. 



Weight 

of Sheet 

24x48 



18.66 

16.33 

14. 

11.66 
9.33 
7. 

5.83 
5.25 
4.66 
4.08 
3.50 
2.91 
2.33 
1.75 
1.16 



Lbs. 

126% 

111% 

105% 
96 

88% 
82 

75 y 2 

67 

61 

55 

50 

44% 

40% 

35 

32 

28 

24 

20 

16 

12 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 



Weight 

of Sheet 

30x60 

inches 



Lbs. 

198. 

174. 

165. 

151. 

138. 

128. 

118. 

105. 
96. 
86. 
78. 
70. 
63. 
55. 
50. 
43.75 
37.50 
31.25 
25. 
18.75 
15.62 
14.06 
12.50 
10.93 
9.37 
7.81 
6.25 
4.68 
3.12 



Weight 

of Sheet 

36x72 

inches 



Lbs. 

285. 
251. 
238. 
217. 
199. 
184. 
170. 
151. 
138. 
124, 
112. 
100. 

91. 

79. 

72. 

63. 

54. 

45. 

36. 

27. 

22.50 

20.25 

18. 

15.75 

13.50 

11.25 
9. 

6.75 
4.50 



Weight 

of Sheet 

48x72 

inches 



Lbs. 

380 

335 

317 

289 

266 

246 

227 

201 

184 

165 

150 

124 

122 

105 

96 

84 

72 

60 

48 

36 

30 

27 

24 

21 

18 

15 

12 

9 

6 



WEIGHT of sheet copper per square foot. 

1*6 inch thick weighs 3 pounds to the square foot. 

y 8 " " " e 

y 4 « „ „ 12 

y „ « „ 24 

1 " « « 46% * 

TO ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHT OF COPPER— Find the 
number of cubic inches in the piece, multiply by 0.3214, and the 
product will be the weight in pounds. Or, multiply the length 
and breadth (in feet), and that by the pounds per square foot. 

These weights are theoretically correct, but variations must 
be expected in practice. 



534 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 26. — Showing Quantity of 20x28 Tin Re- 


quired to Cover a Given Number of Square 


Feet with Flat Seam Tin Eoofing. 


In the following estimates all fractional parts 


of a sheet 


are treated as a full sheet. 




Full size of sheet, 20x28, locked at ends. 




Covering surface 490% sq. in. or 3.41 sq. feet. 




^j 


d 


+-> 


T3 


+j 


«d 


+-> 


•d 


■*-> 


'O 


^j 


'd 


CD 


9 


CD 


CD 


CD 


0) 


CD 


CD 


0> 


<v 


03 


o 


CD 




CD 


u 


CD 


Jh 


CD 


U 


CD 


Si 


<V 




fa 


"3 


fa 


*3 


fa 


'3 


fa 


'3 


fa 


'3 


fa 


'3 




o* 




D« 




a 1 




c 




& 




c 


d 


<D 


d 


CD 


d 


CD 


d 


<D 


d 


<£> 


d 


0) 


Ul 


Sh 


ui 


U 


Ul 


S-. 


Ul 


U 


Ul 


Sh 


Ul 


u 


<+-i 


03 


«M 


w 


<H 


w 


<M 


w 


<w 


02 


<w 


02 


o 




o 


+-> 


o 




o 




O 




O 






O) 




CD 




<D 




a; 




CD 




0) 




<P 




CD 




CD 




CD 




CD 




0) 


6 


ui 


6 


Ul 


6 


Ul 


6 


Ul 


6 


Ul 


d 


Ul 


1 


1 


27 


8 


53 


16 


79 


24 


125 


37 


310 


91 


2 


1 


28 


9 


54 


16 


80 


24 


130 


39 


320 


94 


3 


1 


29 


9 


55 


17 


81 


24 


135 


40 


330 


97 


4 


2 


30 


9 


56 


17 


82 


25 


140 


42 


340 


100 


5 


2 


31 


10 


57 


17 


83 


25 


145 


43 


350 


103 


6 


2 


32 


10 


58 


18 


84 


25 


150 


44 


360 


106 


7 


3 


33 


10 


59 


18 


85 


25 


155 


46 


370 


109 


8 


3 


34 


10 


60 


18 


86 


26 


160 


47 


380 


112 


9 


3 


35 


11 


61 


18 


87 


26 


165 


49 


bTS 


10 


3 


36 


11 


62 


19 


88 


26 


170 


50 


-£co 


11 


4 


37 


11 


63 


19 


89 


27 


175 


52 


<£> 


12 


4 


38 


12 


64 


19 


90 


27 


180 


53 


^^ 


13 


4 


39 


12 


65 


20 


91 


27 


185 


55 


M o 


14 


5 


40 


12 


66 


20 


92 


27 


190 


56 


Sri 


15 


5 


41 


13 


67 


20 


93 


28 


195 


58 


^a 


16 


5 


42 


13 


68 


20 


94 


28 


200 


59 


ob'fi 


17 


5 


43 


13 


69 


21 


95 


28 


210 


62 


(M o 


18 


6 


44 


13 


70 


21 


96 


29 


220 


65 


o ft 


19 


6 


45 


14 


71 


21 


97 


29 


230 


68. 


Cq ft 


20 


6 


46 


14 


72 


22 


98 


29 


240 


71 




21 


7 


47 


14 


73 


22 


99 


30 


250 


74 


°^ u 


22 


7 


48 


15 


74 


22 


100 


30 


260 


77 


-°£$ 


23 


7 


49 


15 


75 


22 


105 


31 


270 


80 


^ o 


24 


8 


50 


15 


76 


23 


110 


33 


280 


83 


3 o £ 


25 


8 


51 


15 


77 


23 


115 


34 


290 


86 


!"U§ 


26 


. 8 


52 


16 


78 


23 


120 


36 


300 


88 


<3g 

^ 02 



USEFUL TABLES 



535 



Table No. 27. — Cost of Tin for Flat Seam Roofing. 


Size, 20x28. Price per box, per square foot and per hundred 


square feet. 


When Tin 


Flat Seam 


Flat Seam 


Costs 


Roofing Costs 


Roofing Costs 


$6.00 per box 20x28 


.0157 per sq. ft. 


or $1.57 per sq. 


6.50 




.0170 




1.70 


7.00 




.0183 




1.83 


7.50 




.0196 




1.96 


8.00 




.0209 




2.09 


8.50 




.0222 




2.22 


9.00 




.0234 




2.34 


9.50 




.0248 




2.48 


10.00 « < 




.0261 




2.61 


10.50 




.0274 




2.74 


11.00 




.0287 




2.87 


11.50 




.0300 




3.00 


12.00 




.0314 




3.14 


12.50 




.0327 




3.27 


13.00 




.0340 




3.40 


13.50 " 




.0353 




3.53 


14.00 




.0366 




3.66 


14.50 




.0379 




3.79 


15.00 




.0392 




3.92 


15.50 




.0405 




4.05 


16.00 




.0418 




4.18 


16.50 




.0431 




4.31 


17.00 




.0444 




4.44 


17.50 




.0457 




4.57 


18.00 




.0470 




4.70 


18.50 




.0483 




4.83 


19.00 




.0496 




4.96 


19.50 




.0509 




5.09 


20.00 




.0522 




5.22 


20.50 




.0535 




5.35 


21.00 




.0548 




5.48 


21.50 




.0561 




5.61 


22.00 




.0574 




5.74 


22.50 




.0587 




5.87 


23.00 




.0600 




6.00 


23.50 




.0614 




6.14 


24.00 




.0628 


6.28 


The above estimates do not include cost of laying the material. 



536 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 28. — Showing Quantity of 20x28 Tin Re- 


quired to Cover a Given Number of Square Feet 


With Standing Seam Tin Roofing 




In the following estimates all fractional parts 


of a sheet 


are treated as a full sheet. 




Full size of sheet, 20x28 ; locked at ends. 




Covering surface, 474.9 sq. inches or 3.3 sq. feet 


• 


^j 


^3 


+: 


'O 


+j 


T& 


+j 


-3 


+i 


m 


+i 


•d 


CD 


cd 


cd 


o> 


CD 


CD 


CD 


o 


CD 


CD 


CD 


CD 


03 


5-i 


o> 


u 


CD 


U 


CD 


J* 


CD 


u 


CD 


S-. 


ft 


'3 


ft 


"3 


ft 


'3 


ft 


'3 


ft 


"3 


ft 


"3 




o 1 




o 1 




c 




c< 




& 




o 4 


d 1 


CO 


d* 


0) 


d 1 


CD 


D 1 


CD 


d* 


CD 


d 1 


CD 


xfi 


S-. 


xfi 


Sh 


02 


u 


m 


u 


Xfl 


U 


Xfl 


Sh 


«H 


SQ 


q-H 


to 


<H 


m 


«H 


m 


«M 


02 


«M 


02 


o 




o 




O 




o 


+■» 


o 


-M 


o 






CD 




0) 




CD 




CD 




03 




CD 


6 


© 

Xfl 


d 


Xfl 


6 


CD 
A 
Xfl 


d 


0> 

Xfl 


d 


<D 
Xfl 


d 


CD 
Xfl 


1 


1 


27 


9 


53 


17 


79 


24 


125 


38 


310 


94 


2 


1 


28 


9 


54 


17 


80 


25 


130 


40 


320 


97 


3 


1 


29 


9 


55 


17 


81 


25 


135 


41 


330 


100 


4 


2 


30 


10 


56 


17 . 


82 


25 


140 


43 


340 


103 


5 


2 


31 


10 


57 


18 I 


83 


26 


145 


44 


350 


106 


6 


2 


32 


10 


58 


18 


84 


26 


150 


46 


360 


109 


7 


3 


33 


10 


59 


18 


85 


26 


155 


47 


370 


112 


8 


3 


34 


11 


60 


19 


86 


27 


160 


49 




9 


3 


35 


11 


61 


19 


87 


27 


165 


50 




10 


4 


36 


11 


62 


19 


88 


27 


170 


52 


si? 


11 


4 


37 


12 


63 


20 


89 


27 


175 


54 


C)M 


12 


4 


38 


12 


64 


20 


90 


28 


180 


55 


2>> 


13 


4 


39 


12 


65 


20 


91 


28 


185 


57 


02 CD 


14 


5 


40 


13 


66 


20 


92 


28 


190 


58 




15 


5 


41 


13 


67 


21 


93 


29 


195 


60 


S'a 


16 


5 


42 


13 


68 


21 


94 


29 


200 


61 


17 


6 


43 


14 


69 


21 


95 


29 


210 


64 




18 


6 


44 


14 


70 


22 


96 


30 


220 


67 


K& 


19 


6 


45 


14 


71 


22 


97 


30 


230 


70 


o » 


20 


7 


46 


14 


72 


22 


98 


30 


240 


73 


X ^ 


21 


7 


47 


15 


73 


23 


99 


30 


250 


76 


o (* 


22 


7 


48 


15 


74 


23 


100 


31 


260 


79 


,Q CD . 


23 


7 


49 


15 


75 


23 


105 


32 


270 


82 


So® 


24 


8 


50 


16 


76 


24 


110 


34 


280 


85 


3^£ 


25 


8 


51 


16 


77 


24 


115 


35 


290 


88 


^5 d 

£ 02 


26 


8 


52 


16 


78 


24 


120 


37 


300 


91 



USEFUL TABLES 



537 



Table No. 29. — Cost of Tin for Standing Seam 


Eoofing. 


Size, 20x28. Price per box, per square foot and per one hun- 


dred square feet. 




Standing Seam 


Standing Seam 


When Tin Costs 


Roofing Coats 


Roofing Coats 


$6.00 per box 20x28 


.0162 per sq. ft. 


or $1.62 per sq. 


6.50 






.0175 




1.75 




7.00 






.0189 




1.89 




7.50 






.0202 




2.02 




8.00 






.0216 




2.16 




8.50 






.0230 




2.30 




9.00 






.0243 




2.43 




9.50 






.0256 




2.56 




10.00 






.0270 




2.70 




10.50 






.0283 




2.83 




11.00 






.0297 




2.97 




11.50 






.0310 




3.10 




12.00 






.0324 




3.24 




12.50 






.0337 




3.37 




13.00 






.0351 




3.51 




13.50 






.0364 




3.64 




14.00 






.0378 




3.78 




14.50 






.0391 




3.91 




15.00 






.0404 




4.04 




15.50 






.0418 




4.18 




16.00 






.0432 




4.32 




16.50 






.044t 




4.46 




17.00 






.045„ 




4.59 




17.50 






.0473 




4.73 




18.00 






.0486 




4.86 




18.50 






.0500 




5.00 




lC.OO 






.0516 




5.13 




19.50 






.0526 




5.26 




20.00 






.0540 




5.40 




20.50 






.0553 




5.53 




21.00 






.0567 




5.67 




21.50 






.0580 




5.80 




22.00 






.0594 




5.94 




22.50 






.0607 




6.07 




23.00 






.0621 




6.21 




23.50 






.0634 




6.34 




24.00 






.0648 




6.48 




The above estimates do not include cost of laying the material. 



538 



SHEET METAL WORKERS' MANUAL 



Table No. 30.— 


-Tinners ' Rivets (Flat Heads). 


Size 
Weight per 1,000 


Dimensions (Inches) 






Ozs. and Lbs. 


Diameter 


Length 


4 


.070 


y 8 


6 


.080 


9/64 


8 


.090 


5/32 


10 


.094 


11/64 


12 


.101 


3/16 


14 


.109 


3/16 


Lbs. 






1 


.115 


13/64 


1% 


.120 


7/32 


1% 


.125 


15/64 


1% 


.133 


% 


2 


.140 


17/64 


2% 


.147 


9/32 


3 


.160 


5/16 


3y 2 


.163 


21/64 


4 


.173 


11/32 


5 


.185 


% 


6 


.200 


25/64 


7 


.215 


13/32 


8 


.225 


7/16 


9 


.230 


29/64 


10 


.233 


15/32 


12 


.253 


% 


14 


.275 


33/64 


16 


.293 


17/32 



USEFUL TABLES 



539 



Table No. 31. — Sizes of Wire Expressed in Frac- 
tions of an Inch. 



No. 



Inch 



000.000 is equal to 15/32 



00.000 

0.000 

000 

00 





7/16 
.13/32 

. % 
.11/32 
. 5/16 



No. 



Inch 



1 is equal to 9/32 

3 " " % 

' 4% " " 7/32 

6 " " 3/16 

8 " " 5/32 

ii " " y 8 



Table No. 32, 



-Size, Weight, and Length of Iron 
Wire. 







o 






o 


a? 




r-i 


to 


u 




O 




+.d 


<V <X> 


& ? 


U O 


1° 

5 H 




0000.000 


.49 


63.63 


000.000 


.46 


56.10 


00.000 


.43 


49.01 


0.000 


.393 


40.94 


000 


.362 


34.73 


00 


.331 


29.04 





.223 


27.66 


1 


.283 


21.23 


2 


.263 


18.34 


3 


..244 


15.78 


4 


.225 


13.89 


5 


.207 


11.35 


6 


.192 


9.73 


7 


.177 


8.30 


8 


.162 


6.96 









o 



£* 



S 2 
.2 c 






02 






99 
112 
129 
154 
181 
217 
228 
296 
343 
399 
470 
555 
647 
759 
905 



9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 



148 


5.8 


135 


4.83 


120 


3.82 


105 


2.92 


092 


2.24 


080 


1.69 


072 


1.37 


063 


1.05 


054 


.77 


047 


.58 


041 


.45 


035 


.32 


032 


.27 


028 


.21 


025 


.17 



1.086 

1.304 

1.649 

2.158 

2.813 

3.728 

4.598 

6.000 

8.182 

10.862 

14.000 

19.687 

23.333 

30.000 

35.000 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Acetylene gas 311 

regulators 316 

Adjustable gutter header. . 118 

wood roofing folder 125 

Adjustment, oxy-acetylene 

flame 319 

effect of improper ad- 
justment 320 

Allowance for grooved seam 166 

for wiring 190 

Alloys, copper 449 

melting points of 513 

properties of 448 

Alternating current in elec- 
tric welding 353 

Aluminum, properties of.. 452 

oxy-acetylene welding of 334 

Angles, construction of ... . 472 

Angular cutters 36 

Annealing 395 

Antimony, properties of . . 453 

Anvil blocks 377 

Anvils 377 

Anvil tools . 381 

Arc, electric, method of 

welding . . . . 367 

welding machine 373 

principles of welding. . . 369 

Areas of circles 530 

Arithmetical signs 484 

Aviation sheet metal work -305 

Bails, wire, forming 219 

Bar folding machine .... 45, 46 
Base plates for roofing tin 16 

Bath-tub stake . 130 

Beading 173 

Beading and crimping ma- 
chines 95 

beading machine 96 



PAGE 

heavy duty beading. ... 97 
crimping and beading. . 98 
cornice makers' crimper 100 
heavy crimping and bead- 
ing 100 

friction clutch attach- 
ment 102 

Beading machine, operating 

the 212 

Beakhorn stake 129 

Bench and slitting shears. 30 

Bench machines . . . : 82 

turning machines 83 

wiring machines 85 

burring machines 87 

setting-down machines. . 88 
combination machines. . . 91 

standards for 93 

revolving standards for. 94 

Bench plate 127 

Bench shears 132 

Bench stakes 127 

Bench work, soldering 183 

Bending, pipe 437 

small pipes 438 

Bends, iron or gas pipe.. 437 
copper, brass and softer 

metal tubes 438 

Bessemer process steel. . . . 391 
Bevel edge square stake . . 130 
Beveled plate for oxy-acety- 
lene welding 326 

Bismuth, properties of ... . 454 

Bismuth-glance 455 

Blocks, anvil 377 

Blowhorn stake 129 

Blowpipe, oxy-acetylene . . . 

313, 315, 342 

tips, selection of 333 

welding 310 

541 



542 



INDEX 



PAGE 
Boiling points of various 

substances 517 

Bottom stake 130 

Brace and wire bender 56 

Brakes 57 

open throat folder 58 

combination brake and 

folder 63 

cornice brake 59, 60 

steel cornice brake . . . 66 y 68 
steel motor driven brake 

72, 73 

Braking tin 202 

Brass, electric welding of. 358 

oxy-acetylene welding of 339 

Brass tubes, bending of. . 438 

Brazing 430 

heat and tools 430 

lessons in 306 

Building trim, metal 13 

Burring edges 201 

machines 87, 201 

edge on body of pail. . . . 209 

Butt welding, electric 359 

oxy-acetylene 320, 325 

Cake cutters, forming 186 

Candle-mold stake 129 

Cans and tanks, dimensions 

of 242 

Can top folder 52 

Carbon steel 393 

Cast iron 383 

Central jet blowpipes 343 

Charcoal tin 16 

Chemistry. of the oxy-acety- 
lene welding flame. . . . 317 
Chicago steel motor-driven 

brake 72, 73 

Chimney cap 273 

Chisel, cold 381 

hot 381 

lantern 135 

wire 135 

Chloride of zinc 177 

Circle, properties of the. . 466 

Circles and curves, cutting 158 



PAGE 

Circles — diameters, circum- 
ferences and areas of*. 530 
Circuit, short, in electric 

welding 364 

Circumference rule 137 

Circumferences of circles. 530 
Circumference table, sheet 

metal workers 9 529 

Clamping dies of electric 

welder 361 

Clamp tongs 120 

Closed lock 79 

Closing a seam 114 

Coffee-pot bead rolls 174 

Cold chisel 381 

Colors of steel 393 

Combination brake and 

folder 63 

scroll and circular snip. . 133 
turning and wiring ma- 
chine 91 

Combined shears and punch 116 

Common gauge seamers. . . 122 

Common metals, the 452 

Compasses 139 

Conductor elbow, pattern 

for 258 

Conductor heads 299 

Conductor stake 131 

Conductivity of metals... 447 
Cone and frustum, patterns 

for 224 

Cone and pyramid 220 

Copper 459 

alloys 449 

electric welding of 358 

oxy-acetylene welding of 337 

properties of. 459 

sheet, weights, per sq. ft. 533 

tubes, bending of 438 

Coppers, forging and tin- 
ning 179 

soldering 142, 143 

Coppersmith's square stake 130 

Cornice brake 59, 60 

Cornice makers' crimper. . 100 

Countersunk grooved seam 172 

Covers, pail ,♦,,,,,, 213 



INDEX 



543 



PAGE 

Creasing stake \ 129 

with horn 130 

Crimp and bead 99 

Crimping 173, 175 

Crimping and beading ma- 
chines 95 

Cross lock seamer, Burritt 's 

patent 122 

Crucible process steel 392 

Cube roots of numbers. 499-510 

Cubes of numbers 499-510 

Cup dimensions 203 

Curved elbow shears 109 

Cutting blowpipe, oxy- 

acetylene 342 

Cutting circles and curves 158 

elbow patterns 160 

patterns and templates. 156 

oxy-aeetylene 342 

results, oxy-acetylene, ta- 
ble of 350 

"Cutting" zinc 176 

Cylinders, forming 170 

Decimal parts of an inch. . 513 

Deep-throat roofing tongs 121 

Definitions of plane figures 463 

of polygons 469 

of solid figures 469 

Diameters of circles 530 

Dimensions of cans and 

tanks 242 

of flaring measures 238 

of flaring pans 235 

Dipping solution for sol- 
dering coppers 180 

Dividers 139 

Double cutting shears for 

light work 134 

with pipe crimper 134 

Double edge 164 

Double hemmed edge .... 186 

Double lock 164 

Double seamers, Burritt ? s 

patent 123 

Double seaming ..88, 105, 209 

by hand 212 

by machine 213 



PAGE 

Double seaming machines. 104 
horizontal disc double 

seamer 106 

Moore's patent 107 

Double seaming, peening 

and raising 207 

Double seaming stake..,. 130 

with four heads 131 

Down-draft single forge. . 385 

Drill, lever 379 

Duct elbows 280 

Ductility of metals 445 

Dynamo, electric welding. 354 

Ears of pail, placing 220 

Edge allowance for bottom 

of pail 209 

Edging, single 163 

double 164 

Elbow edging 110 

rolls for 113 

Elbow machinery 109 

curved elbow shears. . . . 109 
elbow edging machine . . 110 
power elbow edging ma- 
chine Ill, 112 

elbow edging rolls. ..... 113 

elbow seam closing ma- 
chine 114 

Elbow patterns, cutting. . . 160 

Elbows 274 

two-piece 256 

four-piece 90° 274 

five-piece 60° 279 

conductor 258 

Elbow seam closing 113 

Electric arc welding 367 

strength of the weld 372 

comparative application. 372 

cost of 375 

principles of 369 

difficulties in 370 

Electric welder, operating 

parts . 356 

Electric welding 351 

resistance method 351 

troubles and remedies. . 363 



544 



INDEX 



PAGE 

arc welding 367 

motor generator set for. 374 
Equipment, school, for 

sheet metal working. . 145 

sheet metal, for emer- 
gency war training. . . 308 

soldering 183 

Face miters 293 

Faces or rolls .... 72, 113 

Figure 8 motion for oxy- 

acetylene welding ... 326 
Filler rods for oxy-acety- 

lene welding . 324 

Filling material for welding 333 

Finial, roof 295 

Fire for hand welding. ... 386 

Firepots, tinners ' 141 

Five-piece 60° elbow 279 

Flame, oxy- acetylene weld- 
ing 317 

adjustment of 318 

oxy-acetylene cutting. . . . 346 
Flaming arc, the (electric 

welding) 368 

Flange welds, oxy-acetylene 322 

Flanging machines . , 103 

Flanging pail cover 217 

Flaring articles, wiring... 232 

liquid measures 238 

measures, dimensions of. 238 
oblong articles with quar- 
ter-circle corners .... 250 
oblong articles with 

semicircular ends .... 246 
pan, construction of.... 230 
pans, dimensions of .... 235 

roof collar 253 

Flat seam roofing 126 

tin required for 534 

cost of tin for 535 

Flatter, square 381 

Flux, brazing 433 

Fluxes 176 

for oxy-acetylene weld- 
ing 325 

Folded seam 166 

Folding edges and seaming. 163 



PAGE 

Folding machines 44 

bar folder 45, 46 

sheet iron folder .... 48, 49 

pipe folder 49, 50 

can top folder 52 

Following jet blowpipes. . 343 
Foot power squaring shears 23 

gap squaring shears 26 

Forge, care of 396 

down-draft single 385 

induced-draft 378 

Forge practice, course in. 396 
lectures and recitations 

for 398 

exercises - 398 

Forge-shop layouts ...389, 390 

tools , . . 377 

Forging and tinning solder- 
ing coppers 179 

Forging, hand 376 

Formers, use of, with cor- 
nice brake 71 

Forming cylinders 170 

Forming machines 72 

standard type 74 

slip roll pattern 75, 76 

funnel forming machine 78 

Four-piece 90° elbow 276 

Freezing points of various 

substances 517 

Friction clutch attachment 102 

Frustum of a cone 222 

pattern for 252 

Fullers 382 

Funnel forming machine. . 78 

Funnel, making a 235 

Furnaces, gas 141 

soldering 177 

Furniture, sheet metal ... 13 
Fusibility of metals .... 448 

Galena 461 

Galvanized sheets 17 

Gases for oxy-acetylene 

welding and cutting. . 311 

Gas furnaces 141 

Gas pipe bends 437 

Gauge, wire 138 



INDEX 



545 



PAGE 

Gauges, wire 522, 523 

Geometry, practical^ 463 

problems in 473 

Goggles, welder 's 316 

Gold, properties of 455 

Grain tin 456 

Gram, the 497 

Grindstone 378 

Grooved seam 166 

countersunk 172 

Grooves of forming ma- 
chines 76 

Grooving horn 82 

tool : 136 

Grooving machines 79 

standard type 79 

short-horn type 81 

Grooving seams 171 

by hand 172 

Grounds, locating, in elec- 
tric welding 363 

Gutter beading 118 

Gutter machines 118 

adjustable beader 118 

plain beader 119 

Gutter miter, octagon .... 291 

molded 290 

tongs 119 

Hammers, hand . . . 381 

power 381 

raising 134 

riveting 135 

setting 135, 382 

Hand dollies 280 

Hand forging and welding 376 
emergency war training. 424 

practice jobs 426 

advanced job work 428 

steel welding 428 

steel work 427 

Hand roofing double seam- 

ers 125 

Hand shears 129, 156 

hints on care and use of 161 
Hand -welding, art of .... 384 

Hardies 381, 382 

Hatchet stake 130 



PAGE 
Hawk's-bill scroll and cir- 
cular snip . * 133 

Heads, conductor 299 

Heat, welding 386 

Heating flame for oxy- 

acetylene cutting .... 346 
Heavy crimping and bead- 
ing machine 100 

Heavy-duty beading ma- 
chine 97 

Hemming edges of sheet 

metal 163 

Hercules combination snip 133 
Hexagon-shaped cake cut- 
ter, forming 186 

Hints on care and use of 

hand shears 161 

on oxy-acetylene welding 341 
Holdall revolving stand- 
ard 93, 94 

Hold- down attachment for 

squaring shears 26 

Hollow mandrel stake .... 131 

Hollow punch 135 

Hoop, template for 213 

Horizontal disc double 

seaming machine .... 106 

Hot chisel 381 

Hydrochloric acid 177 

Induced-draft forge 378 

Inside miters 288 

Iron and steel, properties 

of 456 

oxy-acetylene welding of 328 

Iron, notes on 383 

cast 383 

malleable 383 

wrought 383 

bars, weight per foot. . 515 

flat bar, weight per foot 521 

oxidation of 386 

wire, sizes of 539 

Joints, pipe 264 

pipes of same diameter. 264 
pipes of different diam- 
eters 267 

joining the pipes 268 



546 



INDEX 



PAGE 

"Killed acid" 177 

Lantern chisel . 135 

Lap seam, ordinary 166 

Lap weld, hand . . 387 

electric 322 

oxy-acetylene 323 

Lead burning 339 

Lead, properties of 461 

milled 461 

pipe joints 340 

Lessons in emergency sheet 

metal work , 303 

Lever drill 379 

slitting shears ...29, 32, 33 

Liter, the 497 

Loading pipe for bending. 438 
Locating grounds and short 
circuits in electric 

welding . 363 

Luster, metallic 444 

Lyon snip 133 

Malleability of metals. . . . 445 

Malleable iron 383 

Mallets, tinners 7 137 

Mandrel stake 131 

Measure lip, patterns 

for 203, 205 

Measures, weights and.... 528 

Melting points of alloys. . 513 

of various substances. ... 517 

Mensuration 484 

Metallic luster 444 

Metals, properties of 443 

luster of 444 

tenacity of 444 

ductility of 445 

malleability of 445 

conductivity of 447 

fusibility of 448 

specific gravity of 448 

common, the 452 

Metals that can be welded. 370 

Meter, the 497 

Metric system, the 497 

measures of length .... 498 

measures of weight .... 498 



PAGE 

measures of capacity . . 498 
Millimeters, decimal equiva- 
lents of 511 

Miter, octagon gutter .... 291 

octagon return ....■ 288 

Miters, face 293 

outside and inside 288 

return and face ....... 285 

Molded gutter 290 

panel 294 

Moore 's patent double 

seaming machine .... 107 

Muriatic acid 176 

Needle-case stake ....... 129 

Nippers, cutting 140 

Nitric acid 302 

Non-corrosive fluxes 177 

Notching and burring ... 197 

Notching machine 117 

patterns 198 

Octagon face miter 293 

gutter miter 291 

return miter 288 

Office furniture, sheet metal 13 

Ogee bead rolls 174 

Open hearth process steel. . 390 

Open throat folder 58 

Original Pexto hand snip. 130 

Outside miters 288 

Oxidation of iron 386 

Oxy-acetylene welding and 

cutting 310 

gases for 311 

qualifications of operator 312 
blowpipes for ..313,315, 342 
figure 8 motion for weld- 
ing 326 

zigzag motion . 326 

correct method of hold- 
ing blowpipe 327 

preparation of parts for 

welding 329 

hints on welding 341 

Oxygen gas for welding. . 311 

regulator 316 



INDEX 



547 



PAGE 

Pail covers, constructing. . 213 

Panel, molded 294 

Parallel line development . 255 

Pattern drafting 151 

Patterns, sheet metal.. 152, 300 

simple 152, 154 

notched 160 

hexagon-shaped cake cut- 
ter 187 

* biscuit cutter 192 

sheet metal cup 200 

measure with flaring lip 205 

one-quart covered pail. . 208 

one-quart pail cover.... 214 

right cone 223 

square pyramid 225 

hexagonal pyramid .... 227 

rectangular pitched cover 229 

flaring pan 232 

funnel body and spout. . 237 

one-half gallon measure 239 

pitched cover 243 

round ventilator head. . . 245 
oblong flaring pan with 

semicircular ends . . . 247 
oblong flaring pan with 

quarter-circle corners. 249 

frustum of right cone. . 251 

flaring roof collar 253 

two-pieced elbow 256 

conductor elbow 258 

pipe and roof flange . . . 260 

hand scoop 262 

tee joint 265 

right-angled pipe joint. 267 

tee joint of 45° 270 

Y-joint 272 

chimney cap 273 

four-piece 90° elbow... 275 
five-piece 60° elbow.... 278 
rectangular duct 90° el- 
bow . 281 

square return miter . . . 286 

octagon return miter. . . 289 

molded face gutter 290 

octagon gutter miter . . . 291 

square face miter 292 

octagon face miter .... 292 



PAGE 

oblong molded panel . . . 295 

square roof finial 297 

square ventilator 300 

Patterns, transferring to 

metal 151 

Peening 211 

Pexto original hand snip . . 130 

Pig tin 456 

Pipe and roof flange. 259 

Pipe bending 437 

crimper, hand 134 

folding machine . . . .49, 50 
intersections and tee 

joints 264 

joint, plain lap 174 

sheet metal, constructing 169 
wrought iron, dimensions 

of 514 

Pitched cover, patterns for 243 

rectangular 227 

Pittsburgh seam, the .... 282 
Plain gutter beading ma- 
chine 119 

Plane figures, definitions of 463 

surfaces, mensuration of 484 

Planishing, sheet copper. . 441 

Pliers . . 140 

Plumbers ' scrapers 143 

Point system of classifying 

steel 393 

Polygons, definitions of . . 469 

Power squaring shears... 27 

gap squaring shears ... 28 

cornice brake 72 

elbow edging machine 

Ill, 112 

hammer 380 

Practical geometry and 

mensuration 463 

Precautions in electric 

welding 368 

in oxy -acetylene cutting 349 

Prick punch 135 

Problems, supplementary, 

in sheet metal work. . 203 
Properties of metals and 

their alloys 443, 516 

Puddling 384 



548 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Punch, hollow 135 

prick 135 

round 381 

Punch and shear 379 

Punches, solid 135 

Punching machines 115 

Pyramid, hexagonal, pat- 
tern for 226 

square, pattern for .... 225 

Radial line developments. . 222 

Raising 216 

block, the 216 

hammers 134 

pail cover 217 

Rear gauge attachment for 

squaring shears 24 

Reciprocals of numbers... 499 
Rectangular duct 90° elbow 252 
Reese 's patent adjustable 

tongs 119 

Regular roofing tongs .... 121 

Regulators, oxygen 316 

acetylene 316 

Remedies for troubles in 

electric welding 363 

Repair work, soldering. . . 183 
Resistance method of elec- 
tric welding 351 

Return miters 285 

Revolving bench plate .... 127 
standard for bench ma- 
chines 93, 94 

Rheostat, electric welding 354 
Ring and circular shears, 

foot 40 

power 43 

Riveting hammer 135 

Rivet set 136 

Rivets, tinners' 538 

Rolls or faces 72, 113 

Roof collar, flaring 253 

finial 295 

flange 259 

Roofing double seamers. . . 121 

folders 126 

tongs 119 



PAGE 

Roofing, quantity of tin re- 
quired for 534, 536 

cost of tin for 535, 537 

Roofing tin, advantages of 14 

durability of 14 

lightness of 15 

base plates for 16 

Rosin 177 

Rotary circular shears ... 38 

slitting shears 34 

Round head stake 130 

punch 381 

Rule, circumference 137 

Sal ammoniac 302 

Scale, removal of, in elec- 
tric welding 357 

Scarfing 387 

Scarf weld 387 

Scoop, hand 261 

Scrapers, plumbers ' 143 

roofing 143 

Scratch awl 131 

Scroll- and circular snip . . . 132 

Scroll shears 31 

Seam, folded 166 

grooved 166 

lap 166 

Pittsburgh, the 282 

Seam closing machines.. 79, 81 

Seamers, double 104, 123 

common gauge 122 

wide gauge 123 

Seaming 163 

Seams, grooving 171 

Set hammers 382 

Setting-down machines. .88, 211 

Setting hammer 135 

Shears, squaring 22 

foot power squaring ... 23 

foot power gap squaring 26 

power squaring 27 

power gap squaring ... 28 

lever slitting . . .29, 32, 33 

bench and slitting 30 

scroll 31 

rotary slitting 34 

rotary circular 38 



INDEX 



549 



PAGE 

ring and circular ... 40, 43 

hand 130 

double cutting, for light 

work 134 

double cutting, with pipe 

crimper 134 

Sheet copper, weights per 

sq. f t 533 

Sheet iron folding ma- 
chine 49, 49 

Sheet iron, standard gauge 

of 531 

Sheet iron and steel, exten- 
sive use of 5 

weight of 524, 5"25 

Sheet metal, various kinds 

of 16 

industry 11-21 

products 11 

furniture 13 

Sheet metal pattern draft- 
ing 151-301 

Sheet metal work, impor- 
tance of . . o o 18 

a growing industry 18 

wages paid for 18 

course in elementary and 

advanced 151-301 

emergency war training 302 
Sheet metal workers' cir- 
cumference table .... 529 
Sheet metal working ma- 
chinery 22-126 

tools 127-144 

course in . . 151-301 

class room, suggested ar- 
rangement for ...... 149 

Shop equipment for schools 145 
Short circuit in electric 

welding 364 

Short-horn grooving ma- 
chine 81 

Single bead rolls 174 

Single edge . 163 

Slip roll pattern forming 

machine ..75, 76 

Snips 129, 156 

scroll and circular 132 



PAGE 

Lyon 133 

original hand 130 

Solder 177 

scrapers 143 

Soldering 176, 302 

bench 184 

bench work 183 

copper handle 143 

coppers 142, 143, 178 

coppers, forging and tin- 
ning 179 

equipment 183 

flat seams 180 

furnaces 177 

methods of 180 

old and repair work. . . . 183 

salts 177 

vertical seams ......... 182 

Solid figures, definition of 469 

Solid punches 135 

Solids, mensuration of.... 488 
Specific gravity of metals. 448 

Spelter 4B2 

Spot welding, electric ... 361 

Springs, tempering 395 

Square box and square pipe 

folding machine . .53, 54 

face miter 293 

flatter ' 381 

pan and box forming ma- 
chine 54, 55 

return miter 285 

stake 129 

ventilator 2'99 

Square roots of numbers 

499-510 

Squares of numbers . . .499-510 

Squaring shears 22 

rear gauge attachment . . 24 

hold-down attachment... 26 

Squaring sheets of metal. . 162 

Squeezing tongs 120 

Stake holder 128 

Stakes 128 

Standing seam joint. 124 

Standing seam roofing . . . 121 

tin required for 536 

cost of tin for 537 



550 



INDEX 



PAGE 
Steam hammer, problems 

with '.'...' 398 

Steel and its manufacture. 388 
Steel and iron, oxy-acety- 

lene welding of ..... 328 

Steel, annealing 395 

Bessemer 391 

boats 14 

carbon 393 

cars 14 

colors of 393 

cornice brake 66, 68 

crucible 392 

electric welding of .... 358 

flat bar, weight, per ft.. 520 

forging 414 

"low carbon" or mild.. 329 

open hearth 390 

properties of 456 

square and round, weight 

and area of 518, 519 

tempering 392 

tool 392, 397 

Steel square, use of.. 220, 244 

Stoves, tent 14 

Stow 's improved roofing 

tongs 119 

Stripping ornaments and 

patterns 185 

Swage blocks 377 

Swages 381 

Swaging machines ....... 95 

Table of cutting results, 

oxy-acetylene 350 

of welding results, oxy- 
acetylene 341 

Tables, useful 497-539 

1. Measures of length — 

metric system ... 498 

2. Measures of weight — 

metric system . . . 498 

3. Measures of capac- 

ity — metric system 498 

4. Squares, cubes, 

square roots, cube 
roots, reciprocals, 
of numbers 499-510 



PAGE 

5. Decimal equivalents 

of millimeters ... 511 

6. Tapers and angles. . 512 

7. Decimal parts of an 

inch 513 

8. Melting points of 

alloys 513 

9. Dimensions of 

wrought-iron pipe 514 

10. Weight per foot of 

iron bars 515 

11. Properties of metals 516 

12. Melting, boiling and 

freezing points of 
various substances 517 

13. Weight and area of 

square and round 
steel, etc 518-519 

14. Weight per foot of 

flat bar steel 520 

15. Weight per foot of 

flat bar iron .... 521 

16. Wire gauges in use 

in theU. S....522, 523 

17. Weight of sheet iron 

and steel per sq. 

ft. 524, 525 

18. Zinc gauge compared 

with other gauges 526 

19. Gauge table and ap- 

proximate weight 

of sheet zinc 527 

20. Weights and meas- 

ures 528 

21. Sheet metal workers' 

circumference ta- 
ble 529 

22. Diameters, circum- 

ferences, and areas 

of circles, etc. . . . 530 

23. Standard U. S. gauge 

of sheet iron 531 

24. Net weight per box 

tin plates 532 

25. Weights of sheet 

copper per sq. ft., 
etc 533 



INDEX 



551 



PAGE 

26. Quantity of tin re- . 

quired for fiat 

seam roofing .... 534 

27. Cost of tin for flat 

seam roofing 535 

28. Quantity of tin re- 

quired for stand- 
ing seam roofing. . 536 

29. Cost of tin for stand- 

ing seam roofing. . 537 

30. Dimensions, etc., of 

tinners' rivets.... 538 

31. Sizes of wire in frac- 

tions of an inch. . 539 

32. Size, weight, and 

length of iron wire 539 

Tacking before welding. . . 330 

Tanks, dimensions of .... 242 
Tapering articles, patterns 

for 220 

Tapers and angles, table of 512 
Teakettle stake with four 

heads 131 

Tee joints 264 

Tempering springs 395 

steel 392 

tools 394 

Templates, cutting 156 

Tenacity of metals 444 

Terne plates 459 

Tin, charcoal 16 

grain 456 

pig 456 

properties of 455 

quantity required for 

flat seam roofing 534 

quantity required for 
standing seam roofing. 536 

roofing 14 

Tin for roofing, cost of. 

535, 537 

Tinners ' firepots 141 

rivets, dimensions of . . . . 538 

Tinning points of coppers. 179 

Tin plates 16, 458 

net weight per box 532 

Tin roof, the 12 

repairs easily made .... 15 



PAGE 

Tin stone 456 

T-joints 264 

T-joint at an angle of 45°. 269 
Tobin bronze flux for weld- 
ing -. 339 

Tongs, forging 382 

Tool steel 392, 397 

tempering 394 

Torch, gasoline 431 

Transformer, electric 353 

voltage and amperage of 365 
Triangles, mensuration of. 494 
Triple bead rolls 174 

coffee-pot bead rolls . . . 174 
Troubles and remedies in 

electric welding 363 

Trucks, welder 317 

Tubes, bending of 438 

Turning a wire edge 233 

Turning machines 83, 217 

Two-pieced elbow 256 

Types of oxy-acetylene cut- 
ting blowpipe 343 

Ventilator head 273 

round 245 

Ventilator, square 299 

Vise, combination 377 

Vise work, problems in ... . 397 
Voltage and amperage, elec- 
tric welding 352 

War training, emergency, 
outline course in hand 
forging and welding. . 424 
emergency, sheet metal 

work 302 

Weight and area of square 
. and round steel, etc . . . 

, 518, 519 

Weight of sheet iron and 

steel 524, 525 

per foot of flat bar steel. 520 

of flat bar iron 521 

Weights and measures. . . . 528 

Weld, scarf 387 

Welding, electric 351 

hand 376 



552 



INDEX 



PAGE 

oxy-acetylene 310 

butt, electric 361 

lap, electric 

spot, electric .......... 361 

apparatus, oxy-acetylene. 313 
preparation for (oxy- 
acetylene) 320 

results, oxy-acetylene, ta- 
ble of 341 

in forge practice 396 

flame, oxy-acetylene .... 317 

heat 386 

Welder's goggles 316 

Welds, oxy-acetylene, exe- 
cution of 325 

Wide gauge roofing double 

seamers 123 

Wire bails, forming 219 

Wire bender -. 56 

Wire chisel . . 135 

Wire edge 164 

turning a 233 

Wire gauge ,,/,,,,,,,,,, 138 



PAGE 

Wire gauges 522, 523 

Wire, sizes of 539 

weight and length of . . . 539 

Wiring a cylinder 85 

allowance 190 

by hand ...195, 196 

flaring articles 232 

process 190 

operation 193 

Wiring machine, sectional 

view of 194 

Wiring machines 85 

Wood roofing folder 126 

Wrought iron ...... .329, 383 

Y-joint ... 271 

Zigzag motion for oxy- 
acetylene welding .... 326 

Zinc, properties of 460 

sheet, gauge table of... 527 

Zinc chloride 177 

Zinc gauge ,,,,,,,,,, , . , . 526 



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